2. An Apologetic Outline
Throughout this volume, our presentation has been topical and directed either to specific critical challenges or to historical issues in the life of Jesus, rather than to a systematic overview of apologetics. In this appendix, our major purpose is to organize our answers, both to those who, in , have attempted to explain away the unique elements in the life of Jesus, as well as to include the historical material from . This will hopefully assist the reader in gaining a more systematic sense of the issues discussed in this book.
The material in this chapter will be organized according to topical, outline form for easier reference and will be divided into three major categories: the New Testament, Jesus, and miracle-claims. We will not be concerned here with the original challenges themselves, but only with the positive responses that were made to each one. In this way, the chapter will be a tighter unit and will not be disjointed as were our earlier discussions. Accordingly, comparatively few endnotes will be utilized. Instead, reference will be made back to the portion where the discussion originally occurred so that those sources can be checked.
A. The Trustworthiness of the New Testament
The condition of the New Testament was a recurring theme in , where it was necessary to answer certain charges, especially against the reliability of the Gospels. So even though our evidence for the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus has been almost entirely gleaned from pre- and non-New Testament sources, we still made several responses to those who questioned the canonical Christian documents.
1.The New Testament has better manuscript evidence than any other ancient book (pp. 54-56).
a.There are over 5,000 New Testament manuscripts and portions of manuscripts. By comparison, the majority of classical works have less than 20 manuscripts.
b.The dates of the New Testament manuscripts are close to the original writings. One Gospel fragment (Ryland’s) dates from about 25 years after the Gospel of John and most of the New Testament (Chester Beatty and Bodmer Papyri) from 50–150 years after the originals. Most classical works date from 700–1400 years after the originals.
c.None of the canonical New Testament is lost or missing.
2.Good arguments can be given that each of the Gospels was either written by an eyewitness, or significantly influenced by firsthand testimony, as recognized by many contemporary scholars (p. 107).
a.The apostle Matthew is often taken to be either the author or the major source behind the first Gospel.
b.It is often recognized that Peter is the major apostolic influence for Mark’s Gospel.
c.That Luke is the author of the third Gospel and Acts is well supported by the data, including both his reliance on eyewitness sources (Luke 1:1-4), and his companionship with Paul.
d.There is a wealth of evidence that the fourth Gospel was either written by or crucially influenced by the eyewitness testimony of John.
3.Even without proving eyewitness authorship, the Gospels measure up well by normal historical standards used in ancient historiography. They are very close to the events that they record, with three out of four being dated within one generation and all four within seventy years of Jesus’ life, all during the lives of eyewitnesses (pp. 106-108).
4.The Gospels are trustworthy sources, as explained by A.M. Hunter (p. 108).
a.These Christian authors, like their Jewish counterparts, were careful to preserve traditional material.
b.The Gospels are close to eyewitness sources.
c.The Gospel authors were honest reporters.
d.The picture of Jesus presented in the four Gospels is virtually the same.
5.The Gospels and Acts exhibit a specific interest in reporting historical facts, not mythology. This is especially the case when the life of Jesus is reported (pp. 52-54).
6.Contemporary historians frequently oppose the application of radical criticism to New Testament studies. According to A.N. Sherwin-White and Michael Grant, such attacks fail at a number of crucial points (pp. 52-54).
a.Numerous ancient works exhibit intentions and methodologies similar to that of the New Testament authors, and yet these ancient works are well accredited as historical works.
b.There are no ancient writings in the category that radical critics place the Gospels.
c.The Gospels are much closer to the events that they describe than numerous events recorded in ancient histories, which sometimes occurred hundreds of years before the earliest sources.
d.Some ancient histories strongly disagree with each other, yet much history is ascertained from them.
e.Radical critics often ignore the cause for the earliest apostles’ experiences, while historians attempt to ascertain what lies behind these episodes.
f.New Testament books such as Acts have been largely confirmed by external tests of historicity.
g.Even if form criticism is applied to the Gospels, this does not preclude the ascertaining of much historical material that is contained in them.
7.Older studies that attempt to discern numerous Hellenistic influences on the New Testament authors are somewhat outdated, with much attention at present being focused on the Jewish background of these books (p. 56).
8.Older attempts to late-date the Gospels, often into the second century AD, are no longer well-accepted by critical scholars. Such efforts would be convenient for some of the critics, but are disproven by the facts (pp. 35-36; 42-43).
9.The Gospels and Acts were recognized as inspired books almost immediately after being written (pp. 110-113).
a.1 Tim. 5:18 quotes Luke 10:7 and refers to it as “Scripture.”
b.Clement of Rome (about AD 95) speaks of the “Gospel” and quotes portions found in all three synoptic Gospels, referring to them as the words of Jesus (Corinthians 13, 46).
c.Ignatius (Smyrnaeans 3) and Polycarp (Philippians 2, 7), both writing about AD 115, refer to verses in the synoptic Gospels as the words of Christ.
d.The Didache (8, 15-16; ca. late first or early second century) refers to the “Gospels” twice and quotes portions found in all three synoptic Gospels each time.
e.Barnabas (ca. AD 135) refers to the text of Matthew 22:14 as “Scripture” (4) and quotes a portion found in all three synoptics as the apostles’ “Gospel” (5).
f.Papias’ fragments (Exposition of Oracles of the Lord; ca. AD 140 or even earlier) assert that Matthew wrote one of the Gospels, while Mark wrote another Gospel, based on the eyewitness testimony of the apostle Peter (III). Two other fragments (XIX, XX) testify that the apostle John dictated his Gospel to Papias himself. (Luke was not questioned by Papias, but any mention of the third Gospel is simply missing from his work).
10.Paul’s epistles were also recognized as inspired Scripture almost immediately after being written (p. 113).
a.2 Peter 3:15-16 calls Paul’s epistles “Scripture.”
b.Clement of Rome (Corinthians 47), Ignatius (Ephesians 10; To Polycarp 5), and Polycarp (Philippians 1, 3-4, 6) all refer to Paul’s writings as inspired.
B. The Historicity of Jesus
1.The trustworthy Gospels (A above) exhibit much interest in the historical Jesus and give accurate accounts of his life, death, and resurrection (p. 37).
2.Numerous pre- and extrabiblical sources record much ancient testimony concerning Jesus within 125 years after his death ().
a.Early Christian creeds that pre-date the New Testament, as well as the historical facts that virtually all critical scholars admit, provide an extremely strong case for the death and resurrection of Jesus (
b.Archaeology contributes a few finds that illuminate and provide background for Jesus’ career (
c.Secular historians, government officials, religious works, and other sources report many details about Jesus from non-Christian viewpoints (
d.Ancient Christian sources preserve a number of historical statements about Jesus (
3.In spite of the excellent pre- and extrabiblical evidence for the historicity of Jesus, there are also good reasons why there are not even more such sources (p. 66).
4.To reject Jesus’ miracles a priori is to ignore correct inductive procedure where all facts are investigated before a decision is made (pp. 50-51; 58-59).
5.To reject Jesus’ doctrinal teachings a priori as valid for today is to pick and choose portions of the Gospels. Further, if Jesus was raised from the dead, there is, at a minimum, some implied significance for Jesus’ teachings, as well (p. 64).
6.Without a significant historical basis in the life of Jesus, Christianity would have had no impetus for its origins (pp. 49-50).
7.The ancient mystery religions cannot account for early Christianity (pp. 33-35):
a.The early testimony of creeds such as 1 Corinthians 15:3ff., Luke 24:34, and those in the book of Acts reveal that the crucial facts of the Gospel were reported directly after the historical events themselves.
b.More importantly, the eyewitness testimony of 1 Corinthians 15:3ff. and other texts links the Gospel testimony to the original persons involved, rather than any legendary stories.
c.There is no clear and early evidence for a resurrection occurring in a mystery religion before the late second century AD.
d.There are numerous differences between Jesus and the mystery religions.
e.The mystery religions had very little influence in Palestine.
f.The trustworthy Gospels give an historically accurate portrayal of Jesus.
8.Jesus died on the cross, as indicated by several facts (pp. 72-75).
a.David Strauss’ famous critique showed that the swoon theory was self-contradictory. Even if this hypothesis were true, it still would not account for the disciples’ conviction that they had actually seen the risen Jesus.
b.The nature of crucifixion, including the discovery of Yohanan’s skeleton, reveals both the nature and assurance of death by this method.
c.The explanation for Jesus’ heart wound indicates that it would have killed him even if he had still been alive.
d.The death of Jesus is the most recorded event in ancient, non-Christian history (
e.The trustworthy Gospels give accurate accounts of Jesus’ death.
9.After his death, Jesus was raised bodily and appeared to his followers (pp. 159-161).
a.Naturalistic hypotheses that have sought to explain in normal terms the supernatural element of Jesus’ resurrection have failed to do so, chiefly because they are refuted by the known historical data. Several other reasons also indicate this failure.
b.There are numerous positive evidences for the resurrection that indicate that Jesus rose from the dead and appeared to many of those who followed him.
c.A case for the resurrection can be built by using only those mimimal facts that are clearly established by the historical method. On a smaller scale, these facts can refute the alternative hypotheses and provide the best evidences for the resurrection.
d.The Shroud of Turin may supply some additional scientific evidence for Jesus’ resurrection (p. 254).
10.There are numerous differences between both Jesus’ teachings and those of the Qumran community, and between Jesus and the Essene Teacher of Righteousness, in particular (see
11.Jesus’ message was not changed by Paul or by other followers (pp. 81-88).
a.In both the synoptics, as well as in John, Jesus claimed to be deity. Often this was done by his words, such as his claims to be Son of God and Son of Man.
b.Numerous pre-Pauline creeds such as Philippians 2:6-11, Romans 1:3-4, 1 Corinthians 11:23ff., and many from the book of Acts designate Jesus by the loftiest titles, thereby indicating the early teaching of his deity. These show further that this doctrine definitely did not originate with Paul.
c.Paul also taught the deity of Jesus,
d.Neither Jesus nor Paul taught that Christianity was a new religion. Both held that Christianity was a fulfillment of Judaism.
e.Jesus’ central teaching of the Kingdom of God and its entrance requirements of faith in his person and teachings is found in all four Gospels
f.Paul was known as the apostle to the Gentiles.
g.The fact that Paul’s message was checked and approved by the original apostles (Gal. 2:1-10) reveals that he was not teaching a message contrary to Jesus’. Such official apostolic recognition was not only given to Paul’s original message but also to his epistles, which were written later and immediately recognized as Scripture (2 Pet. 3:15-16; see Clement of Rome, Ignatius, and Polycarp in A, 10 above).
h.Such an approach to the New Testament usually involves picking and choosing certain texts while ignoring others.
i.Since Jesus literally rose from the dead, any verification of the truthfulness of his teachings would even extend to Paul’s message and writings, since they are in agreement with the Gospels at these points.
12.Jesus was not an international traveler during his “silent years” or after his death (pp. 89-98).
a.There is no viable historical evidence for such international ventures.
b.The swoon theory fails and is rejected by critical scholars (see B, 8 above).
c.These endeavors almost always involve a long trail of illogic and incredibly mysterious connections.
d.The trustworthiness of the Gospels refute these theses.
C. Miracle-claims
1.No event can be rejected a priori unless one assumes an omniscient viewpoint. Since this is impossible, the facts must be examined (pp. 58-59).
2.The laws of nature do not disallow any events, but are simply descriptions of how things usually occur. Hume was incorrect in endeavoring to utilize man’s experience of these laws against the existence of miracles (p. 58).
3.Twentieth century science has changed, and while it certainly does not prove miracles, neither does it disallow them (p. 59).
4.There are several reasons why those who deny or question the objectivity of historical knowledge are mistaken (
5.Correct inductive research methodology demands a systematic investigation of all relevant data before a decision is made. Such a process is observed in fields as diverse as science, medicine, law, and journalism, as well as history. In a similar way, miracle claims must also be checked out before a philosophical or historical judgment is made (pp. 60-61).
6.Although many would place miracle-claims completely in the realm of faith, such is to ignore their possibly objective theistic and historical nature (p. 61).
a.If it is taught that miraculous events have occurred in history, as is the case with New Testament miracle-claims, then at least the objective, historical side of such a claim can be investigated. In other words, if it actually happened, at least the portion of the event that touched the space-time world can potentially be examined.
b.In the New Testament, the resurrection of Jesus is not only the central tenet of Christianity, but it is asserted that if Jesus did not rise from the dead, then faith is actually in vain (1 Cor. 15:1-20, especially vv. 14, 17). Paul even supports his point that Jesus was raised by citing eyewitnesses, historical testimony to this fact (vv. 5-8). Under these circumstances, one could hardly claim that objective, factual interests in the resurrection are foreign to the New Testament.
c.This objection also commits errors that are associated with the “leap of faith.” If carried to its logical conclusion, it provides no objective basis for faith, including any reasons why faith should be exercised in any certain beliefs, or even that faith should be exercised at all. As such, it is difficult to distinguish between belief and credulity.
7.Alternative theories that have been proposed to account for Jesus’ resurrection on naturalistic grounds have failed to account for the known historical facts (pp. 62-63).
8.There are many strong historical reasons to believe that Jesus was raised from the dead (p. 160).
Conclusion
We will not belabor the chief conclusion in this appendix, namely, that attempts to debunk the historicity of Jesus in whole or in part have failed for numerous reasons, such as those outlined above. Usually such attempts ignore a myriad of evidence that serve to disprove these alternate hypotheses. Perhaps this is why most critical scholars also shun such theses.
Evidence such as that pointed out in this chapter does reveal the negative conclusion concerning the failure of these misconceptions about Christianity. It also establishes some of the positive evidence in favor of the trustworthiness of Scripture, the historicity of Jesus, and the nature of miracle-claims. Such evidence is quite formidable.
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Bible and Gospel,
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Roman Society,
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Apostolic Fathers.
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A New Life of Jesus,
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Theology of the New Testament,