Conclusion
Chapter Two
The hope of Israel: the resurrection and the arrival of the last days
The last chapter drew attention to the inaugurated kingdom of God as Luke’s framework for his demonstration of the continued outworking of God’s saving promises through the ongoing reign of the Lord Jesus. In Acts, Luke shows that the inaugurated kingdom of God is still very much a reality even though Jesus, the one who announced the arrival of the kingdom, has ascended to heaven. He is continuing to be active and is continuing to rule from the right hand of the Father. In this chapter we will see that Luke’s emphasis on the inauguration of the kingdom by Jesus and his continuing rule is the reason why the resurrection of Jesus features so prominently in Acts. The chapter will begin with a brief introduction to the significance of the resurrection in the OT and Luke’s Gospel as an orientation to the discussion in Acts. Then some of the main features of the references to the resurrection of Jesus in Acts will be identified, and Luke’s emphasis on the resurrection in Acts will be related to the theme of God’s saving promises in Acts. The importance of the resurrection in Acts is closely related, however, to two other important issues in the theology of Acts: the significance of the death of Christ in Acts, and the nature of evangelistic preaching in Acts. Thus the chapter will conclude with an examination of these two issues. The following chapter will further examine the fulfilment of God’s promises of blessing for the age to come.
Resurrection hope
The teaching of the OT is especially important for understanding the significance of the resurrection in early Christianity and NT theology in general, and the book of Acts in particular.
In Ezekiel 37 a day is anticipated when God’s people will have God’s Spirit (37:14), return from exile (37:21), be united again (37:22), experience cleansing from sin and enablement to keep God’s commands (37:23–24), and live under the reign of a new David (37:24–25). This is a time when God will fulfil the goal of his covenant promises to his people: he will dwell among them and be their God and they will be his people (37:23, 26–27). This ultimate restoration of God’s people and fulfilment of God’s promises is characterized as nothing less than a resurrection from the dead. The dry bones represent the people of Israel and the departure of their ‘hope’ (37:11). Corpses rise, new life is breathed in and God’s people will know that the Lord has spoken and that he has done it (37:13–14). As Schreiner observes, although there are complex issues in Ezekiel 37, it is clear that ‘resurrection signifies the fulfillment of God’s promises, the inauguration of the age to come – the restoration of exile and the return of Israel’. Likewise, Isaiah 26 anticipates a time when the proud city of those who do evil will be levelled to the ground in judgment (26:5); in fact this judgment will come to the whole earth (26:9, 21). In contrast to this, the city of salvation for those who trust in the Lord will be strong and characterized by peace (26:1–4, 12), for the Lord himself will bring it about and this brings glory to God (26:1–5, 12–15). The language of ‘your zeal for your people’ and ‘you have enlarged the nation’ (26:11, 15) indicates that God’s covenant promises are also in view here. Those who take part in this city of salvation, however, include the dead, as corpses will rise and shout for joy (26:19). Similarly, Daniel 12 looks ahead to the time when some will rise to everlasting life and others to shame and everlasting contempt. There will be judgment for some; while others, like Daniel, ‘at the end of the days’, will rise to receive their allotted inheritance (Dan. 12:1–3, 13). Those who will be delivered are those whose names are in ‘the book’; that is, those who are in a covenant relationship with God (11:32; 12:1).
In each case the resurrection is bodily, is clearly God’s doing, is reserved for the end of the age and is associated with the onset of the age to come, the culmination of the promises of blessing for God’s people. Israel will be reunited, restored, forgiven and blessed with God’s presence. There was not, of course, an expectation that there would be any overlap of the ages. It was expected that, with the resurrection at the end and the onset of blessing for God’s people, there will be judgment for the wicked and the end of ‘the old age’. This, we could say, was ‘the hope of Israel’.
Resurrection in Luke’s Gospel
We will focus here on Luke 24 since this final chapter in Luke’s Gospel emphasizes the significance of the resurrection as both a clarification of themes raised at the beginning of Luke’s Gospel (concerning God’s saving purposes for his people) and an anticipation of major emphases to follow in the book of Acts (concerning God’s saving purposes through the Lord Jesus). Luke 24, in three scenes (vv. 1–12, 13–35 and 36–53), much of which is unique to Luke’s Gospel, emphasizes the physical reality as well as the meaning or significance of the resurrection. We will see both of these aspects in Luke 24 before observing their continued development in the book of Acts.
The physical reality of the resurrection is repeatedly highlighted throughout Luke 24 in the following ways: (1) the confusion and despair of the disciples in each of the three scenes indicates that they were not naive or ready to believe anything and were not expecting a resurrection (scene 1, vv. 3–4, 11–12; scene 2, vv. 23–24; scene 3, vv. 37–39, 41; cf. also 23:55 – 24:1); (2) the emphasis on the empty tomb, particularly in the first scene (23:55; 24:3, 6, 12; cf. also 24:22–24) emphasizes that ‘he is not here’; (3) the appearances of Jesus (24:15, 24, 29, 31, 34–35, 36–43); (4) the physical, bodily (even if transformed) resurrection of Jesus (cf. references to ‘the body’, and particularly the placement of ‘the body’, in 23:52, 55; 24:3; i.e. the same body that went into the tomb was raised; the meal in 24:30; and almost every line, even word, of 24:36–43), which stresses that this was not a vision. Jesus was able to be touched and this was a unique event.
Luke not only affirms the physical reality of the resurrection, but also highlights its meaning and significance. As indicated above, there is considerable emphasis in each of the three scenes on the confusion of the disciples. Correspondingly, there is a focus on the explanations provided for the disciples. In 24:6–8 (from the first scene) the extended explanation given by angels is unique to Luke’s Gospel and is particularly related to Jesus’ own words. In 24:13–32 (from the second scene) the whole journey along the road with Jesus (also unique to Luke’s Gospel) is about the journey to understanding of these two disciples. In 24:44–47 (from the third scene) the second half of the meeting and appearance with the disciples that began in 24:36 is all about reminding them of what Jesus had told them and their understanding of the Scriptures.
A key feature of this explanation concerns the accomplishment of God’s purposes. This is highlighted through the use of dei (it is necessary) and the emphasis on the fulfilment of Jesus’ words and especially the Scriptures. As noted above, 24:7–8 (which is unique to Luke’s Gospel) particularly highlights the fulfilment of Jesus’ words that the Son of Man ‘must’ (dei) be crucified and then be raised. In the second scene (24:26) Jesus states that the Christ had to suffer and enter into his glory. In this second scene the focus is now on the fulfilment of the Scriptures. In the third scene (24:44) Jesus states that ‘this is what I told you’ and that everything ‘must’ be fulfilled. This third scene now combines the fulfilment of Jesus’ words and God’s plan in the Scriptures.
When the Scriptures are referred to in Luke 24, the emphasis is not on a particular verse or two. Rather, the emphasis is repeatedly on the totality of Scripture. Thus in 24:25 Jesus refers to ‘all that the prophets have spoken’ and then ‘beginning with Moses and all the Prophets’ he proceeds to explain what was said in ‘all the Scriptures’ concerning himself (24:27). The disciples look back to that time on the road and refer to Jesus’ opening of ‘the Scriptures’ to them (24:32). Similarly, in the third scene Jesus reminds them that he had told them ‘everything’ must be fulfilled that is written about him, and then proceeds to give the most comprehensive summary of the totality of the OT Scriptures, ‘the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms’ (24:44). The disciples are then enabled to understand ‘the Scriptures’ (24:45). Thus the language of ‘fulfilment’ as it relates to the totality of Scripture indicates that the Scriptures were ‘pointing forward to’ or ‘anticipating’ the death and resurrection of Jesus and therefore that his death and resurrection are the realization of this hope. In these scenes then Jesus is the teacher. On the one hand, it appears that the OT is required to understand the significance of the resurrection and that the OT and Jesus’ words are in harmony with each other. Yet, on the other hand, Jesus himself and his resurrection are required in order for the OT hope to be understood.
Regular ‘retrospective summaries’ that look back to the Gospel accounts of Jesus’ ministry in general and the events surrounding the crucifixion in particular are also characteristic of Luke 24 (cf. vv. 6–7, 14, 18–21, 44). Thus, looking back now, readers of Luke’s Gospel are meant to see that Jesus’ ministry and the cross were an integral part of God’s purposes. In addition to these general ‘retrospective summaries’, Luke 23:50 – 24:53 also points readers back to the opening chapters of Luke’s Gospel. The final verses of Luke 24 return to the temple, where Luke’s Gospel began (1:5; 2:37; 24:52– 53). Furthermore, references to Joseph, who is ‘righteous’ (‘upright’ NIV) and ‘waiting for the kingdom of God’ (23:50–51), and the two disciples who ‘had hoped’ that Jesus would be the one ‘to redeem Israel’ point back to the opening chapters. The description of Joseph as righteous recalls the descriptions in the infancy narratives of Zechariah and Elizabeth (1:6–7, both ‘righteous/upright’), Simeon (2:25–27, ‘righteous’) and Anna (2:36–38, though the exact term is not used). Similarly, the language of ‘waiting for the kingdom of God’ and hoping for one ‘to redeem Israel’ recalls language in the opening chapters. Zechariah praises the God of Israel because ‘he has come and has redeemed his people’ (1:68). Simeon was ‘waiting for the consolation of Israel’ (2:25), and Anna ‘gave thanks to God and spoke about the child to all who were looking forward to (‘waiting for’) the redemption of Jerusalem’ (2:38).
In this way then Jesus’ death and resurrection help us to understand the Scriptures in the sense that they now help to explain how the OT hope for the ‘redemption’ or ‘consolation’ of God’s people is fulfilled. These hopes were raised in the opening chapters of Luke’s Gospel but awaited clarification as to how they would be fulfilled. In the context of Luke 24:21 the now abandoned ‘hope’ (they ‘had hoped’) of the two disciples in the face of Jesus’ death probably still referred to their hope for political deliverance from Rome. Thus the clarification in Luke 24 concerning the relationship between the OT and Jesus’ death and resurrection may more specifically be described as clarification concerning the fulfilment of this hope for Israel. With the resurrection of Jesus, the hoped-for kingdom of God, or promises of blessing for God’s people, may now be received. The blessings associated with the age to come, the resurrection age, may now be received from the resurrected Jesus himself. Therefore, with this inauguration of the resurrection age to come, the blessings of the age to come are emphasized in the final verses of Luke’s Gospel in anticipation of what is to follow in the book of Acts: repentance . . . forgiveness of sins . . . all nations . . . in the name of Jesus . . . Jerusalem . . . the Father’s promise . . . power from on high (24:47–49). These links between the name of Jesus and the resurrection, the blessings of the age to come and the ‘hope of Israel’ are then developed further in Acts.
Resurrection in Acts
The proclamation of Jesus’ resurrection is one of the most prominent themes in Acts. The resurrection of Jesus is the climax and focus of the sermons in Acts (see esp. Acts 2:24–32 and 13:30–37). Even Paul’s defence before the Areopagus in Acts 17 was prompted by his earlier preaching concerning ‘the good news about Jesus and the resurrection’ (17:18–19). Paul’s reference to the resurrection brought the sermon to a conclusion and the subject of the resurrection was what some wanted to hear about again (17:31–32). In the light of 17:18–19, therefore, it is likely that the resurrection of Jesus was the goal of Paul’s sermon in Acts 17 from the beginning. Thus, whether for Jewish or Gentile audiences, it may be said that apostolic preaching in Acts is ‘resurrection preaching’ (Acts 4:2; 17:18– 19). In his summary in 4:33 Luke states that ‘with great power the apostles continued to testify to the resurrection of the Lord Jesus’. The emphases found in Luke 24 on the physical reality (it is not enough to say ‘he lives in my heart’ only) as well as the meaning or significance of the resurrection are also seen in the preaching of the resurrection in Acts. The significance of the resurrection for the fulfilment of God’s promises for his people, however, receives more detailed treatment in Acts.
As in Luke 24, the sermons in Acts (following a recounting of the events of Jesus’ life and death by crucifixion) stress the historical reality of the resurrection with an emphasis on the physical, bodily resurrection of Jesus. The body put to death was the body raised (cf. Acts 2:23–24, 27, 31; 3:15; 5:30; 10:39–40; 13:29–31) and (as in Luke 24) Jesus’ disciples saw him. The reality of Jesus’ appearances, however, becomes dominant in Acts as the proclamation of Jesus repeatedly refers to eyewitness testimony. The term ‘witness/testify’ in Acts frequently has to do not with what we might describe as personal ‘testimony’ of what God has done in our lives, but with actual ‘witness’ or ‘sight’ of the risen Lord Jesus. Note the repetition of the theme of witness in association with the proclamation of the resurrection in the verses below:
2:32
‘we are all witnesses of the fact’
3:15
‘we are witnesses of this’
4:33
‘the apostles continued to testify to the resurrection’
5:32
‘we are witnesses of these things’
10:39, 41
‘we are witnesses’ ‘(he was seen) by witnesses’
13:31
‘he was seen . . . they are now his witnesses’
22:15; 26:16
Paul will be a witness of what he has seen
Thus the resurrection is frequently spoken of in terms of ‘eyewitness’ testimony of the risen Christ. So important is this ‘eyewitness’ testimony of the risen Christ that it is made one of the requirements for the replacement apostle in 1:22. That is, the addition of eyewitness testimony is frequently at the heart of the proclamation and indicates that the historical reality of the resurrection is crucial. For Luke (and for the proclamation of the early Christians) it was not enough only to speak of personal moral transformation, personal existential experience of the risen Christ or the philosophical superiority of Christianity; rather, the authentic apostolic eyewitness testimony of the historical reality was fundamental.
Luke emphasizes more, however, than the historical reality of the resurrection of Jesus in Acts. The meaning or significance of the resurrection is especially developed in Acts. As we observed in the introductory chapter, Luke stresses the accomplishment of God’s purposes in the death and resurrection of Christ. Thus Jesus’ death, even though it was brought about by the actions of evil men, is attributed to God’s ‘set purpose and foreknowledge’ (Acts 2:23). Similarly, in Acts 4:27–28 the actions of Herod, Pilate, the Gentiles and the people of Israel accomplished ‘what your power and will had decided beforehand should happen’. The accomplishment of God’s purposes in the death of Christ is also highlighted in the way Christ’s death is said to conform to what God said would happen in OT Scripture. Thus the actions of handing Jesus over to be killed, disowning Jesus before Pilate (even though Pilate had decided to let Jesus go) and having the ‘author of life’ killed (3:13–14), though described as ignorant actions (3:17), are said to be ‘how God fulfilled what he had foretold through all the prophets, saying that his Christ would suffer’ (3:18). Likewise, the actions of the people of Jerusalem and their rulers in condemning Jesus ‘fulfilled the words of the prophets’ (Acts 13:27).
It is also in these contexts that we find the repeated emphasis in Acts that ‘God raised him from the dead’. This is the consistent refrain when the resurrection of Jesus is proclaimed, whether before a Jewish audience (2:24; 3:15; 4:10; 5:30), a Gentile audience familiar with the Scriptures and the life of Jesus (10:40), a Jewish and Gentile ‘God-fearing’ synagogue audience (13:30, 33–34, 37) or a Gentile audience unfamiliar with the Scriptures of Israel but who have had a framework provided for them concerning the God of the Bible (17:31). In keeping with the corresponding emphasis on the accomplishment of God’s actions in the death of Jesus mentioned above, the resurrection of Jesus is also then an outworking or accomplishment of God’s action.
In Acts the resurrection is the climax of God’s saving purposes, and it is on the basis of the resurrection that the blessings of salvation may be offered. The reason for this appears to be that in the resurrection of Jesus, the hoped-for resurrection age to come has arrived already, and it is because of the arrival of the age to come that the blessings of that age may now be received. This is stated in the narrative climax of Luke’s references to Jesus’ resurrection in Acts 26:23. Before examining that text, however, we can see that Luke is providing hints of this in the way in which Jesus’ resurrection is associated with the resurrection of ‘the dead’ in general (i.e. in the plural, ‘the dead ones’); that is, the resurrection of the dead expected to take place at the end of the age. Thus in Acts 4:2 what disturbs the temple leadership is the apostles’ proclamation of ‘the resurrection of the dead’ (plural) in Jesus. It appears that the general resurrection of all people at the end is in view and it is this resurrection that is being proclaimed ‘in Jesus’ (cf. also 17:31 and then 32). That is, in the context of Acts 3 – 4, Jesus’ resurrection anticipates the general resurrection at the end of the age and makes available now, for all those who place their faith in him, the blessings of the ‘last days’. A general reference to ‘the resurrection of the dead’ (plural) is also what Paul says he is on trial for in 23:6 and 24:21. After the discussion below, it will become clearer that when Paul stands up before the Sanhedrin in Acts 23:6 and announces that he is on trial because of his hope in the resurrection of the dead, he is doing more than throwing a strategic grenade into the proceedings. In his proclamation of Jesus’ resurrection he is announcing the fulfilment of God’s promises that were anticipated to arrive in the age to come, the resurrection age. Thus he is on trial for his ‘hope in the resurrection of the dead’.
In order to appreciate Paul’s emphasis on the significance of the resurrection in his defences in Acts 24 and 26, it will be helpful to see the flow of argument in these two defences. Spencer’s outline helpfully identifies the similarity in structure and perspective in these speeches of Paul in Acts 24 and 26:
Paul’s trial before Felix: Acts 24
Introduction:
opening comments to the judge (24:2–4 [Tertullus]; 24:10 [Paul])
Narration:
review of temple incident (24:11–13)
Declaration:
hope of resurrection (24:15–16)
Narration:
review of temple incident (24:17–20)
Declaration:
hope of resurrection (24:21)
Paul’s trial before Agrippa: Acts 26
Introduction:
opening comments to the judge (26:2–3)
Narration:
review of Jerusalem upbringing (26:4–5)
Declaration:
hope of resurrection (26:6–8)
Narration:
review of conversion/call (26:9–21)
Declaration:
hope of resurrection (26:22–23)
Spencer helpfully highlights the centrality of the resurrection in Paul’s defences, where it is raised both early as well as climactically. In Acts 24 the statements in verses 15 and 21 refer to the general resurrection of the dead at the end of the age. Thus it is left to Paul’s final and climactic trial in Acts to clarify what he means when he declares that he is on trial for his belief in the final resurrection of the dead.
Paul’s final trial in Acts begins with all the pomp and ceremony appropriate to this climactic statement concerning this long trial section that concludes Acts. In 25:23 this is highlighted by Luke’s introduction to the proceedings: ‘Agrippa and Bernice came with great pomp and entered the audience room with the high ranking officers and the leading men of the city. At the command of Festus, Paul was brought in.’ Then, following a summary of events that have led to this moment, Luke provides us with Paul’s longest defence in this trial section (following the shortest one before Festus in Acts 25) and Paul’s longest speech in Acts. It is in this speech that the resurrection is again central. As Spencer’s analysis of the structure indicates, the resurrection is again mentioned early in the defence in a general fashion and assumes a belief that God is able to ‘raise the dead’ (plural). It is then in Acts 26:22–23, in Paul’s final words before being interrupted, that Paul declares that he is saying ‘nothing beyond what the prophets and Moses said would happen – that the Christ would suffer and, as the first to rise from the dead, would proclaim light to his own people and to the Gentiles’. Here, finally and climactically, Luke includes Paul’s clarification of what he has meant throughout his earlier defences by stating that he is on trial for ‘the resurrection of the dead’ (plural). Jesus’ resurrection is an end-time eschatological event that has already taken place in this age. As in Acts 4:2, to proclaim Jesus’ resurrection was to proclaim the introduction (already in this age) of the eschatological blessings reserved for the resurrection age (at the end of this age) for all those who belong to Jesus.
A further indication that Luke understands Jesus’ resurrection to be the introduction of God’s promises for the age to come is found in these final chapters of Acts in Paul’s trial scenes when Paul refers to the resurrection as the ‘hope of Israel’. As in the opening and concluding chapters of Luke’s Gospel, so here in these concluding chapters of Acts there are repeated references to the hopes of the people of Israel. Paul repeatedly states that being on trial for his proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus is in fact being on trial for the ‘hope of Israel’. Notice the recurring reference to ‘hope’ in the summary of statements below concerning why Paul was on trial:
23:6
‘I stand on trial because of my hope in the resurrection of the dead’
24:14–15, 21
‘I believe everything that agrees with the Law and that is written in the Prophets, and I have the same hope in God as these men, that there will be a resurrection . . . it is concerning the resurrection of the dead that I am on trial before you today’
26:6–8, 22–23
‘it is because of my hope in what God has promised our fathers that I am on trial today . . . why should any of you consider it incredible that God raises the dead? . . . I am saying nothing beyond what the prophets and Moses said would happen – that the Christ would suffer and, as the first to rise from the dead would proclaim light. . .’
28:20
‘it is because of the hope of Israel that I am bound with this chain’
Paul repeatedly declares that what he believes is consistent with the Scriptures (‘the Law and the prophets’, ‘the prophets and Moses’) and the promise of God to ‘our fathers’. This is the same ‘hope’ as his accusers have of a future resurrection (24:15), the ‘hope’ in God’s promise that ‘the twelve tribes’ (i.e. the people of Israel) are ‘hoping to see fulfilled’ (26:6–8), and it is therefore ‘the hope of Israel’ (28:20). This is why Paul states that he is on trial because of his ‘hope in the resurrection of the dead’ (23:6 and again in 24:21). As Paul’s final trial in 26:6–8 and 22–23 makes clear, the resurrection is the essence of the hope of Israel and the Scriptures. This ‘hope’ is the longed-for ‘age-to-come’ of the last days characterized by resurrection, the blessings of that age, the Holy Spirit and the return and restoration to God of God’s people. It is this hope that Paul claims has been fulfilled and made available already in Jesus’ resurrection from the dead. Thus Jesus’ resurrection is tied to the heart of the fulfilment of God’s promises and the outworking of his plans in salvation history. The resurrection of Jesus is ‘first’ and brings the eschatological resurrection into this age so that the blessings of that age are now available for all those who belong to him.
It is because of this connection between Jesus’ resurrection and the resurrection at the end of the age, therefore, that Jesus’ resurrection is also intimately tied to the offer of the blessings of salvation in Acts. It is the resurrected Jesus who pours out the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:33). It is the resurrected Jesus who grants ‘salvation’ to the beggar – a healing in anticipation of the wholeness of the new creation (4:10–12). Likewise, it is the resurrected Jesus who gives ‘repentance and forgiveness of sins to Israel’ (5:30–31). The link between the resurrection and the offer of the blessings of salvation is especially seen in Paul’s synagogue sermon in Acts 13. Paul declares in 13:32–33 that ‘what God promised our fathers he has fulfilled for us, their children, by raising up Jesus’. As indicated above in the repeated references in Paul’s trials to the resurrection and God’s promise, the resurrection of Jesus is here again the fulfilment of God’s promise to his people. Then, following references to the Davidic promises and concluding again in 13:37 that God raised him from the dead, Paul states ‘therefore . . . through Jesus the forgiveness of sins is proclaimed to you’. It is because the resurrection of Jesus is the inauguration of the age to come that the blessings of that age such as the Holy Spirit, salvation, repentance and forgiveness may now be received. Schreiner correctly observes therefore that ‘Luke concentrates on the resurrection of Jesus in Acts because it is the emblem of the new age, the signature of God’s promises’. The importance of the resurrection in Acts is closely related, however, to two other important issues in the theology of Acts: the significance of the death of Christ in Acts, and the nature of evangelistic preaching in Acts. Thus the following sections will examine these two issues before we move to the following chapter.
Jesus’ death and the resurrection in Acts
Some have observed this emphasis on the resurrection in Acts and have concluded that Luke denies any atoning significance to Jesus’ death in both his Gospel and in the book of Acts. Although, as we have seen in this chapter, the book of Acts certainly emphasizes the resurrection of Jesus, Luke does not deny the significance of Jesus’ death for dealing with sin. Two features of Luke’s writing need to be kept in mind here. First, Luke is selective in what he includes, and he summarizes what he records (cf. Acts 2:40). Thus Luke does not necessarily repeat information again if he has already drawn attention to a particular theme. Secondly, he also expects readers to keep in mind his first volume, the Gospel of Luke, when reading his second volume, the book of Acts. This is indicated in the first verse of Acts, where he points us back to his first volume and reminds us of what he has already written about in anticipation of what he is going to go on and write about. Thus I will first summarize the main features of Jesus’ death in Luke’s Gospel before turning to the main features of Jesus’ death in the book of Acts.
Jesus’ death in Luke’s Gospel
What then needs to be kept in mind from Luke’s first volume before we assess the importance of the resurrection in his second volume? One obvious observation to keep in mind is the fact that an account of Jesus’ death has already been told in great detail. Some deny, however, that Luke has a theology of the atonement in his Gospel. Although space prevents a detailed discussion here, this claim is usually based on the arguments that (1) Luke has omitted Mark 10:45 in the equivalent discussion in Luke 22:27, and (2) that Luke 22:19b–20 (concerning the body ‘given for you’ and the blood ‘poured out for you’) was not original to Luke’s Gospel. The first argument, however, requires a view of literary dependence among the Synoptic Gospels that is less certain these days. Furthermore, the whole discussion in Luke 22:24–30 (i.e. the context for 22:27) takes place at the last supper and is unique to Luke’s Gospel in this setting (thus to claim that Luke has consciously ‘omitted’ Mark 10:45, a saying from a different context and setting, neglects the uniqueness of this setting in Luke 22 as a whole). The second argument has been rejected by many, as the textual evidence supports the longer reading in 22:19b–20.
Moving to more substantive observations concerning Luke’s view of Jesus’ death in his Gospel, we can note the following: (1) The structure of Luke’s Gospel particularly highlights Jesus’ ‘journey’ to Jerusalem from Luke 9:51. In this way Luke indicates that the whole of Jesus’ ministry must be understood in the light of the cross with the goal of Jerusalem as the context for all that Jesus does ‘on the way’. (2) Luke repeatedly emphasizes that Jesus’ death was the plan and will of God (Luke 18:31; 22:22; 24:7, 25–27, 44–46). (3) In fact, as with the other Gospels, by including Jesus’ concern for the ‘cup’ he was about to drink, Luke includes the fact that Jesus would drink the ‘cup’ of God’s wrath (Luke 22:42–44; cf. Mark 14:32–42; Isa. 51:17, 19, 22; Jer. 25:15–29; 49:12). Other indications that Jesus’ death was wrath-bearing include the emphasis on the Passover in the last supper in association with Jesus’ own suffering (Luke 22:1, 7–15) and thus the presentation of Jesus as the lamb for God’s people; the sacrificial language of Jesus’ body ‘given’ for his disciples and his blood ‘poured out’ for his disciples (Luke 22:19–20); and the darkness at noon while Jesus is on the cross as indicative of the ‘day of the Lord’ judgment (Luke 23:44–45; cf. Joel 2:10, 30–31; Amos 8:9; Zeph. 1:15; Jer. 15:9; Deut. 28:29; Job 5:14). (4) Alongside this repeated stress on the will, plan and purpose of God in Jesus’ death, however, is another emphasis in Luke’s account of Jesus’ death: Jesus was innocent and righteous, as seen in (a) the repeated statements concerning his innocence throughout Luke 23 (cf. 23:4, 14–15, 22, 41, 47), and (b) the allusions to the righteous sufferer of the Psalms (Pss 22:6–7, 18 and 69:21–22 in Luke 23:34–36; Ps. 31:5 in Luke 23:46; Ps. 31:18 in Luke 23:47; and Ps. 38:11 in Luke 23:49). He did not die for his own sins since he was righteous. (5) Luke also portrays Jesus as the Suffering Servant of Isaiah. Very broad allusions to this may be found in Luke 23:9 (Isa. 53:7–8 and Jesus’ silence; cf. also Acts 8:32); Luke 23:34 (Isa. 53:12 and Jesus’ intercession for the transgressors); Luke 23:35 (Isa. 42:1 and Jesus as ‘the Chosen One’; cf. also Luke 9:35); and Luke 23:47 (Isa. 53:11 and Jesus as ‘righteous’). More explicitly, however, a quotation of Isaiah 53:12 concerning the Suffering Servant of Isaiah is cited by Jesus in Luke 22:37 (in a passage unique to Luke’s Gospel). In the context of Isaiah 52:13 – 53:12, Isaiah 53:12 sums up and concludes the whole ‘Servant Song’. This song, it must be remembered, refers to a Servant who was despised, rejected, stricken by God, pierced for our transgressions, bore the iniquity of us all, though he had done no violence, nor was any deceit in his mouth, he was crushed and suffered according to the Lord’s will, but was a guilt offering and bore the sin of many. Furthermore, not only is Isaiah 53:12 found in a crucial setting for the whole of the Servant Song in Isaiah 53 as a summary verse, but the quotation of this verse by Jesus in Luke 22:37 is also found in a prominent place in the narrative of Luke’s Gospel. It comes at the end of the farewell discourse and right before the action that leads to the passion narrative. Thus it virtually stands as a heading for all that is to follow as Jesus then prepares in prayer for the ordeal of bearing God’s wrath (22:39–46), faces his betrayer and accusers (22:47–71), and dies unjustly as one who is righteous and yet goes willingly to death by God’s plan and purpose (23:1–46). (6) Luke explicitly and uniquely includes the statement from the Lord Jesus at the last supper that the cup which represents Jesus’ blood is the inauguration of the new covenant (Luke 22:20). This new covenant in Jesus’ blood of course ought to remind readers of the promises of Jeremiah and Ezekiel of forgiveness of sins, the Holy Spirit and a renewed/transformed people of God. (7) The outcome of all this is that ‘forgiveness of sins’, a prominent theme throughout Luke’s Gospel (Luke 1:77; 3:3; 5:20–21, 23–24; 6:37; 7:42–43, 47–49; 11:4; 12:10; 17:3–4; 23:34), is therefore commanded (by Jesus himself) to be preached in his name to all nations (Luke 24:47).
In summary: as readers of Acts, if we keep in mind the dominant focus of Luke’s first book as Luke expects us to (Acts 1:1), we will recognize, in narrative form, the main lines of a theology of the atonement anticipated in the OT and articulated in the NT letters. Jesus’ death was God’s will, purpose and judgment. Yet Jesus did not deserve to die, as he was righteous and innocent of all crime, perfectly obeying the will of God. The answer to this dilemma that Jesus did not deserve death and yet his death was God’s judgment is found in the statements of the Lord Jesus himself, who pointed to the sacrificial nature of his death as a representative and substitutionary sacrifice for his people. Therefore the new-covenant blessings of forgiveness of sins and the presence of God among a transformed people may now be proclaimed, and must be proclaimed, to all nations.
Jesus’ death in the book of Acts
Teaching about Jesus’ death in the book of Acts includes the following: (1) Jesus’ death is the plan and will of God (Acts 1:16; 2:23; 3:18; 4:28; 13:27, 29; 17:3) – enough has been said about this in the introductory chapter and again in this chapter, so I will not develop the point again here. (2) Jesus died as one who bore the curse of God (Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29; cf. also Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13). In these verses Peter and Paul state that Jesus was killed by being hung ‘on a tree’. This way of describing Jesus’ death is most likely an allusion to the phrase found in Deuteronomy 21:23, where it is stated that anyone who is hung on a tree is ‘cursed by God’. As with many of Luke’s allusions to the OT, he appears to be writing for an audience familiar with the OT and who would thus have been familiar with the significance of stating that someone was put to death ‘on a tree’ (something noted in the introductory chapter and evident in the many OT quotations and allusions in Acts). (3) Nevertheless, even though Jesus’ death is repeatedly stated to be God’s plan and even though there are allusions to Jesus’ death as the death of one ‘cursed’ by God, Acts (as with Luke’s Gospel) repeatedly states that Jesus was an innocent, holy and righteous sufferer (Acts 3:14; 4:27; 7:52; 10:38; 13:28). (4) In this vein Luke continues his emphasis on Jesus as the Suffering Servant (Acts 3:13, 18, 26; 4:27; 8:32–33). (5) Likewise, in keeping with the emphasis in Luke’s Gospel and in obedience to the command of Jesus himself, the new-covenant blessing of ‘forgiveness of sins’ is proclaimed ‘through Jesus’ in Acts (Acts 2:38; 3:19; 5:31; 8:22; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18). (6) Luke includes the words of Paul to the Ephesian elders that the church is bought with ‘the blood of his own (Son)’ (Acts 20:28) – a statement that further highlights the sacrificial nature of Christ’s death and the costly price paid to redeem God’s people.
In summary: it is clear that Luke especially emphasizes the proclamation of Jesus’ resurrection in Acts. These same messages, however, also highlight Jesus’ death (reminding readers of all that Luke has said in his first volume), allude to his death as a curse (again keeping in mind what he has already said in his first volume) and then these messages proclaim the forgiveness of sins, calling for faith and repentance (as Jesus commanded his disciples to do in Luke 24). Having written a first volume, however, which elaborated in great detail the significance of Jesus’ death (in view since at least Luke 9:51), Luke (understandably) summarizes aspects of Jesus’ death in his second volume and develops more fully the event that especially highlights Jesus’ lordship and the arrival of the age to come. He expects his readers to remember that when the apostles preached Christ’s death and resurrection, the death and resurrection are inseparable and are the basis for the resulting offer of forgiveness of sins. Christ’s undeserved death was according to God’s plan and purpose, and in this death he even bore God’s wrath and punishment. The judgment he bore was therefore for his people (Luke 22) and it is because of this death and defeat of death that forgiveness of sins is offered to all who turn to the crucified and risen Saviour in repentance and faith.
Preaching the gospel in Acts
As noted above, the emphasis on the resurrection of Jesus in Acts is found particularly in the speeches in Acts. Because many of these speeches are evangelistic sermons, this raises some questions concerning the content of evangelistic preaching in the book of Acts. Thus in this section the resurrection of Jesus in Acts will be discussed in the context of the broad features of evangelistic preaching in Acts more generally.
We have observed that Luke both begins and ends the book of Acts with two references to the kingdom of God (1:3, 6; 28:23, 31) and that part of Luke’s purpose is to teach his Christian readers about the nature of the inaugurated kingdom of God in this new era, ‘between the times’ in the overlap of the ages. So what happens between the inauguration and consummation of the kingdom? Luke shows that God’s people are no longer restricted to national Israel but includes all who repent and trust in the Lord Jesus. God’s people will face opposition and suffering (this is what life will be like in this overlap of the ages), but they are nevertheless, by God’s grace, characterized by a corresponding active movement both to proclaim the word – the message of the gospel – to all, and to establish and strengthen local churches. The spread of the word through proclamation, planting and strengthening local churches, in the midst of suffering, therefore, dominates Luke’s instruction for Christian readers like Theophilus about what is to characterize the people of God in this new stage in salvation history.
It appears likely that Luke also intends to teach something about the nature of this proclamation, or what this proclamation is to be characterized by. In assessing whether or not Luke is trying to make a point (i.e. being ‘prescriptive’) we observed (in the introductory chapter) that one way of identifying this is to look for emphasis or repetition. In the case of preaching the gospel in Acts there is surely a case that Luke is trying to make a point. Not only do regular ‘summary statements’ plot the progress of the word throughout the narrative of Acts, but much of what Luke writes is in the form of speeches proclaiming and defending the gospel. For a book called ‘acts’ much of it is ‘teaching’. Although calculations vary depending on how much speech one requires before something is labelled a ‘speech’, of approximately 1,000 verses in Acts, at least 365 are found in major and minor speeches and dialogues. The main speeches of believers in Acts include Peter (eight), Stephen (one), James (one) and Paul (nine). If we focus attention on the evangelistic speeches of Christians in Acts, it certainly seems that Luke is interested in showing how the gospel is proclaimed as well as documenting the spread of the gospel.
Abbreviation and selection in Luke’s account of apostolic preaching
Many have noted that Luke has provided us with carefully selected representative speeches – the point of which appears to be to provide us with models/patterns/examples for how the gospel was proclaimed and defended among the various audiences that Christians met as the gospel spread. Thus, for example, in Paul’s major speeches we have one each for Jews (13:16–41), Gentiles (17:22–31; cf. also 14:14–17) and Christian leaders (20:18–35). These speeches, in keeping with Luke’s practice of selectivity, are typical of more general accounts and thus we are to read these as typical of the way Paul would present the gospel to a synagogue audience and typical of the way he would present the gospel to a Gentile audience with no background knowledge of God’s special revelation.
Furthermore, it appears that Luke has abbreviated these carefully selected representative speeches, given that what we have as even the longest speech would take only a few minutes to read (cf. also Acts 2:40). It also seems that sometimes Luke abbreviates further as he progresses in the narrative. Thus Green has observed, for example, in Peter’s evangelistic speeches of Acts 2 – 5, that we move from 23 verses in his first evangelistic speech (Acts 2:14–36), to 15 verses in his second (Acts 3:12–26), to 5 verses in his third (Acts 4:8–12), and to 4 verses in Peter’s fourth evangelistic speech in these chapters (Acts 5:29–32). Green is probably correct to suggest that we are meant to see in the smaller summaries allusions to the larger accounts that do not need constant repeating. When we focus on the evangelistic speeches in Acts, we find that although each speech suits its context and reflects the distinctive elements of each speaker, certain patterns begin to emerge. In the discussion below, following a table that provides a broad summary, we will examine the main features of the evangelistic speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2 – 5, 10, 13 and 17. Consistent patterns emerge concerning their focus on God’s saving purposes in Christ’s death and resurrection so that forgiveness of sins may be offered to all who respond in repentance and faith.
Repeated features of evangelistic speeches in Acts
God-centred
One of the most striking features of these sermons is that, although they are clearly designed to proclaim Christ, they all begin with God. As we have already seen (in ch. 1), the focus is on God’s actions in history and the fulfilment of his purposes and promises given in Scripture. This is the case whether the audience has a biblical background (e.g. Acts 2 – 5, 13 and Acts 10, even though, as 10:36–38 indicates, they knew about Jesus’ ministry) or not, such as in Acts 17. There is either an assumption or reminder of God’s purposes and action in Scripture, or, if there is not (as in Acts 17), then a biblical framework for understanding God and his purposes in the world is made known and explained first. The emphasis is on God’s initiative; he is active and personal and we are accountable to him. Thus, whether the audience is Jewish or Gentile, Jesus is not presented in abstraction or isolation from a broader understanding of God and God’s purposes in the world. A ‘world view’ is painted (i.e. who God is, what he is like and how he relates to the world) and then the situation of the audience and what they need to know about Jesus are explained so that they grasp the biblical framework of God’s sovereign purposes and salvation history.
Table 1: Major evangelistic speeches in Acts
Acts 2
Acts 3
Acts 4
Acts 5
Acts 10
Acts 13
Acts 17
The speaker
Peter (with the eleven, 2:14)
Peter (with John, 3:11)
Peter (with John, 4:1, 7)
Peter and the other apostles (5:29)
Peter (10:34)
Paul (with his companions, 13:13–15)
Paul (17:22)
The audience
Jews from every nation (2:5)
The crowd in Solomon’s portico (3:11)
The rulers, elders, scribes (4:5–6)
The Sanhedrin (5:27)
Cornelius and household (10:27)
Israel and Gentiles in a synagogue (13:16)
The Areopagus (17:22)
Occasion
Pentecost (2:12)
Healing and gathered crowd (3:12)
By what power or name? (4:7)
Escape, arrest, prohibition (5:27)
Messengers from Cornelius (10:33)
Invitation to speak (13:16)
‘Jesus and the resurrection’ (17:18–20)
Introduction
Joel, fulfilment, God’s action (2:16–17)
The God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, our fathers (3:13)
An act of kindness (4:8–9) (obedience to God, 4:19)
We must obey God . . . The God of our fathers . . . (5:29–30)
God shows no favouritism, God sent the message (10:34, 36)
God’s action in Israel’s history to David (13:16–23)
altar, worship, God, creation, humanity (17:22–29)
The events Jesus’ life Jesus’ death Jesus’ resurrection
2:22–32
Jesus’ ministry you killed him God raised him we saw him
3:13–15
you killed him God raised him we saw him
4:10–11
(4:20)
you killed him God raised him we saw him
5:30–31
you killed him God raised him we saw him
10:36–42
Jesus’ ministry they killed him God raised him we saw him
13:23–37
John’s ministry, they killed him God raised him they saw him
17:31
God raised him from the dead
The offer Forgiveness of sins The Holy Spirit
2:38 (2:21, 40)
forgiveness, Holy Spirit, saved from the ‘day of the Lord’
3:16, 19, 21, 25–26
sins wiped out, refreshing, blessing
4:12
(salvation)
5:31–32
(repentance and forgiveness of sins granted)
10:42–43 (10:44; 11:15–18)
(judge), forgiveness, Holy Spirit, life
13:38–39, 46, 48
forgiveness of sins, justification (eternal life)
17:30–31
judgment is coming
The required response Repentance, faith (baptism)
2:38, 41
repent, be baptized, (‘accepted the message’)
3:16–26
repent and turn to God, ‘listen’, turn
(repentance)
10:43, 47–48 (11:17–18)
believe (repentance granted, baptism)
13:39, 48
believe
17:30 (17:34)
repent (some believed)
Audience-conscious
In addition to this observation about the God-centredness of these speeches, however, it should also be noted that what is said about God varies from context to context. There is a sensitivity to and awareness of the audience and what they need to know. This ‘audience adaptation’ is evidenced in the following ways. (1) Audience adaptation is evident in the various ways in which the speeches describe God and his purposes. Thus in Acts 2 God’s promise concerning the Spirit in the last days is the obvious starting point; in Acts 10 the sermon begins with the fact that God does not show favouritism; in Acts 13 the focus is on God’s gracious actions throughout Israel’s history; and in Acts 17 God’s sovereignty over and distinction from creation and therefore humanity’s accountability to him are highlighted. In other words, the speeches do not just begin with ‘here are some things you should know about God’. Although they all do begin with God and his purposes, they all focus on context-specific aspects of God’s purposes. (2) Related to this, the speeches are preceded by some ‘occasion’ and are responses to that particular ‘occasion’. Thus, whether the occasion is Pentecost, a healing, an arrest, or an enquiry, the speeches are all related to those particular occasions (i.e. explaining the pouring out of the Holy Spirit, explaining the significance of the healing, explaining the authority of Jesus). (3) Similarly, the speeches are often tied to specific opportunities by questions or invitations. Thus speeches in response to questions occur in Acts 2:12 (‘What does this mean?’); 4:7 (‘By what power or what name?’); 5:27–28 (‘questioned by the high priest’); 17:18–20 (‘May we know what this new teaching is?’); and in 3:12 an implied question is assumed as Peter ‘answered (‘said to’ NIV) them. . .’ (perhaps in response to the implied question ‘How did these men make this beggar walk?’). Specific invitations to speak are found in 10:33 (‘we are all here . . . to listen to everything the Lord has commanded you to tell us’) and 13:15 (‘if you have a message of encouragement for the people, please speak’). (4) The ‘audience-conscious’ nature of the speeches in Acts is further indicated in the way Jesus’ death and resurrection are spoken of. Not all Jews are blamed for Christ’s death, as the summary on the table above indicates. There is a shift from ‘you killed him’ when audiences in Jerusalem are addressed (Acts 2 – 5) to ‘they killed him’ when audiences outside Jerusalem are addressed (Acts 10, 13). Likewise, not everyone was present for Jesus’ resurrection appearances after he rose from the dead, as there is a shift from ‘we saw him’ when Peter and the apostles are speaking (Acts 2 – 5, 10) to ‘they saw him’ when Paul refers to these early resurrection appearances (Acts 13). The core elements remain the same concerning God’s saving purposes and Christ’s death and resurrection despite the variety of audiences. Finally (5), the variety of verbs used (see at the end of this chapter) also implies that various levels of interaction were expected from the audiences. Verbs of teaching, proclaiming, refuting, reasoning and persuading require hearers to understand, think, reason, consider and examine. The sheer variety of terms used for this preaching of the gospel cautions against reductionistic approaches to engaging with non-Christian audiences.
Christ-focused
As with the observations above concerning the emphasis on God’s purposes, the focus on Christ is also found in all of the evangelistic speeches, whether the speech is for those with or without a biblical background. In each instance, even Acts 17 (cf. 17:18, 31–32), the goal of the speech is to present Christ to the audience. In this sense there are a few key features we have already seen in this chapter. (1) The sermons are historically grounded accounts of the events of Jesus’ life, death and resurrection. The speeches focus on what Christ did, what happened and the reality of apostolic eyewitnesses. This is especially prominent in the emphasis on phrases such as ‘we are witnesses of this’. This is of course similar to what Paul says he preached in 1 Corinthians 15. The historical reality of Jesus’ death and resurrection are central to the uniqueness of the Christian faith. (2) These historically grounded accounts are, however, also theologically oriented accounts of the historical events. The sermons are not just an accounting of historical events: they are more than historical accounts. God’s saving action in history is climaxed in Christ’s death and resurrection. Thus, as we have observed, even Christ’s death, though brought about through the actions of evil men, is ultimately attributed to the accomplishment of God’s purposes: God’s ‘set purpose and foreknowledge’ (Acts 2:23; cf. also 4:28); or ‘this is how God fulfilled what he had foretold’ (3:18); or ‘in condemning him they fulfilled the words of the prophets’ (13:27). Likewise, with Christ’s resurrection, it is always God who ‘raised him from the dead’. This emphasis is the same whether the audience is Jew or Gentile. All of this is, of course, in keeping with the emphasis on God’s action, the fulfilment of his purposes, and the climax of his saving purposes in Christ throughout Acts. (3) The focus of this Christologically oriented preaching in Acts is on the resurrection. ‘Preaching the resurrection’ is the way Luke summarizes their preaching at times (Acts 4:2, 33; 17:18; though there are also other formulations; cf. 17:2–3), and the resurrection of Jesus is the focus and climax of the sermons (see esp. Acts 2, 13). As noted above, even the sermon in Acts 17 is prompted by questions about the resurrection and climaxes with reference to Jesus’ resurrection, which indicates that this was the goal of the sermon from the start (17:18–31; i.e. after establishing the nature of the God of the Bible). We have seen already in this chapter, however, that this focus on the resurrection does not mean that Luke downplays the death of Jesus: (a) Luke has already emphasized the importance of Jesus’ death in his first volume; (b) Jesus’ death is still proclaimed along with his resurrection in Acts, for the two are inseparable; (c) now that the resurrection has occurred, this is the new element in his historical account of God’s saving purposes that needs to be highlighted; (d) the resurrection also demonstrates the lordship of Jesus (cf. Acts 2:35–36; 10:42; 17:31), his current reign (2:32–33) and the inauguration of God’s end-time saving blessings. As noted in the discussion of Jesus’ death in Acts, when the apostles preached the good news of Christ’s death and resurrection, they were proclaiming God’s saving purposes in these events. The (wrath-bearing) death and (death-defeating) resurrection of Jesus and the resulting offer of the forgiveness of sins are inseparable.
Response-oriented
Although apostolic preaching focuses on God’s plans and purposes and culminates in the accomplishment of his saving purposes in the death and resurrection of Christ, the implications and significance of God’s saving action in Christ are always highlighted. In this sense, the proclamation of the good news of God’s saving action in Christ is always accompanied with warnings and promises and an appeal to respond in repentance and faith. Warnings are given because estrangement from God, opposition to God, and idolatry against God bring judgment. Thus in Acts 2 the name of the Lord must be called upon in order for a person to be saved from judgment on the day of the Lord (2:21, 40, 47), and those opposed to the Lord Jesus are his enemies and members of a ‘corrupt generation’ who will one day be judged (2:35, 40). In Acts 3 the audience must repent so that sins might be wiped out (3:19), Christ will return (3:20–21), but all who do not listen to him will be completely cut off (3:23). In Acts 10 and 17 Christ is declared to be the judge who will one day judge ‘the living and the dead’ (10:42) and ‘the world with justice’ (17:31). In Acts 13:40 warning is given in the light of the judgment spoken of by the prophets.
Along with warnings, however, there are promises. Apostolic preaching proclaimed ‘the way to be saved’ (16:17, 30). The ‘good news’ or gospel was about what God had done in the historical events of Jesus’ life, death and resurrection. Because of his wrath-bearing death (Luke 22:19–20, 37, 42; 23:44–45; Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29) and the overcoming of death in resurrection (Luke 24:46–47; Acts 2:38; 5:31; 13:38–39) the blessings of the age to come may now be offered to those who will respond to this good news with repentance and faith in Jesus. Thus apostolic preaching involved pleading with sinners to be saved (2:40). The message was ‘a message through which you and your household will be saved’ (11:14) or ‘a message of salvation’ (13:26). In Acts 13 this ‘message of salvation’ is further defined in terms of ‘forgiveness of sins’ (13:38), ‘justification’ (13:39), ‘eternal life’ (13:46, 48) and again ‘salvation’ (13:47). In obedience to the command of the Lord Jesus, therefore, the apostles preached ‘repentance and forgiveness of sins’ in Jesus’ name to all nations (Luke 24:47). The preaching was direct and personal where applicable (‘you killed’, ‘you know’, ‘it is to us’, ‘he has fulfilled for us’, ‘I want you to know’, ‘your objects of worship . . . what you worship’) and repentance and faith were called for consistently. Apostolic preaching was not characterized by merely abstract announcements of Jesus’ lordship, nor was personal application left out. The good news of God’s saving action in Christ demands a response, so apostolic preaching consistently called people to repentance and faith.
It should be noted in this regard that although the preaching was response-oriented, the messages were not response-driven. That is, the messages were not compromised just to get a favourable response or just to make people happy. There were often mixed and even hostile responses. This does not mean, of course, that there was a lack of concern for the audience or that there was no desire to see a favourable response. The hope was that there would be a response of repentance and faith for the forgiveness of sins.
Boldness: the manner of apostolic preaching
Luke is especially fond of describing the preaching in the book of Acts as preaching with ‘boldness’. The noun parrēsia is used five times, especially in the early chapters of Acts, and the verb parrēsiazomai is used seven times (out of a total of nine in the NT). Thus, using the noun parrēsia, Peter states in 2:29, ‘Brothers I can tell you confidently. . .’ (in the context of derision); in 4:13 Luke states that when the Sanhedrin saw the boldness of Peter and John, they marvelled (in the context of opposition from ‘the rulers’); in 4:29 the believers pray that the Lord would ‘enable your servants to speak your word with great boldness’; then in 4:31 ‘they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and spoke the word of God boldly’ (in the context of threats and opposition); and finally in 28:31 Luke states that Paul ‘boldly and without hindrance’ ‘preached the kingdom of God and taught about the Lord Jesus Christ’ (in the context of house arrest).
The verb parrēsiazomai is used in 9:27, where Luke reports that Barnabas told the disciples in Jerusalem how Saul preached fearlessly in Damascus; and the verb is used again in 9:28, where Luke reports that Saul spoke boldly in the name of the Lord in Jerusalem (in the context of Jews plotting to kill Paul). In 13:46 we are told that Paul and Barnabas ‘answered them boldly’ (in the context of Jews being filled with jealousy and ‘blaspheming’ or ‘speaking abusively’ against Paul); again in 14:3 Paul and Barnabas spend considerable time in Iconium speaking boldly for the Lord (in the context ‘Jews stirred up the Gentiles and poisoned their minds’ and there was a plot among the Gentiles and Jews ‘to mistreat them and stone them’); in 18:26 Apollos began to speak boldly in the synagogue (in the context of vigorous refutation and public debate); similarly, in 19:8 Paul entered the synagogue in Ephesus and ‘spoke boldly there’ (in the context of some being ‘obstinate’, who ‘refused to believe’ and ‘publically maligned the way’); and in 26:26 Paul states that he speaks ‘freely’ to Festus (in the context of a trial and Festus’ shouting that Paul is insane!).
As noted in the parentheses above, each reference to ‘boldness’ here is located in a context of hostility or opposition. In these contexts then ‘boldness’ is a freedom to proclaim the truth of God’s saving purposes in the Lord Jesus along with the accompanying warnings and promises even in contexts of opposition, threats of personal harm, persecution or derision. It is the willingness ‘to be clear in the face of fear’.
How then did this boldness arise? First, especially in Acts 4, Luke highlights the fact that this boldness comes supernaturally as a result of the Spirit’s work. Thus Peter is ‘filled with the Holy Spirit’ when he speaks to the Sanhedrin (4:8) and they notice his boldness (4:13). The believers pray that they will be enabled ‘to speak your word with great boldness’ (4:29) and again they were ‘filled with the Holy Spirit and spoke the word of God boldly’ (4:31). A similar point may be made from Peter’s speech in Acts 2, where the same term used for the enabling from the Spirit to speak in languages in 2:4 is used of Peter being enabled to speak in 2:14.
Secondly, it seems likely that the manner of preaching is linked to a conviction about the message preached. Boldness comes from knowing that the kind of message one brings is God’s message about what he has done in Christ, which fulfils his word of promise in the law and prophets, and which is the only means to receive forgiveness of sins and avert judgment. In this sense, in addition to what was said above about the consistent inclusion of warnings and promises in apostolic preaching, it is also helpful to observe the descriptions of this message in Acts. In table 3 below, summaries of the message preached in Acts indicate that although there are a variety of expressions used concerning the message, it is consistently described as, on the one hand, God’s message (it is the message of ‘God’, ‘the Lord’, ‘the kingdom of God’ or ‘the will of God’), and, on the other hand, as ‘good news’ (it is the word of ‘salvation’, ‘grace’, ‘life’, ‘peace’). Thus it is likely that the manner of preaching is derived from the nature of the message as God’s word of grace. Knowing the source of the message (God), the content of the message (God’s saving action in Christ) and the eternal significance of the message (life) brings confidence in proclaiming the message. Their message after all promised not health and wealth in this life but ‘new life’ or ‘eternal life’ (5:20; 11:18; 13:46, 48).
Thirdly, returning to the theme of this chapter (and the book as a whole), it is also likely that the truth of Jesus’ resurrection brought boldness in the face of opposition. The disciples knew that Jesus had conquered death (1:3) and continues to reign (2:32–36); they proclaimed a risen Saviour (2:31; 3:15; 4:2, 33; etc.); they were commissioned by the risen Lord himself ( Luke 24:47–49; Acts 1:8; 9:15; 13:47; 20:24; 22:21); the Lord Jesus enables those who hear the message to respond (2:47; 5:31; 11:21; 16:14); the risen Lord Jesus continues to encourage them in the midst of hardship (18:9; 23:11); and Jesus himself will receive them when they ‘sleep’ at their death (7:59–60).
Conclusion
The resurrection of Jesus in Acts especially highlights the arrival of the age to come as anticipated in the OT Scriptures. The resurrection is therefore integral to the outworking of God’s saving promises and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. As Luke 24 and Acts 23 – 28 especially highlight, the resurrection of Jesus is the fulfilment of Israel’s hope. Luke had already highlighted the saving significance of the wrath-bearing and sacrificial death of Jesus in his Gospel. In Acts, therefore, he summarizes this aspect of apostolic preaching more succinctly in order to highlight the new event in God’s saving purposes – the resurrection as supreme evidence of the achievement of God’s saving purposes and the arrival of the age to come. It is therefore, on the basis of the death and resurrection of Jesus, that the blessings of the age to come may be offered to all who come to the risen Lord Jesus in repentance and faith. The next chapter will examine further some of the promises of blessing for the age to come that are fulfilled in Acts.
The following tables relate to the discussions above regarding the variety of verbs used as an indication of the variety of ways in which the gospel was announced to the audiences (table 2) and the variety of ways in which the content of the message is summarized as God’s message of grace (table 3). The references are not grouped in any particular order except that an attempt has been made to group similar phrases together (though variations are listed separately). The translations of the Greek text are my own.
Table 2: Verbs used in Acts to describe the action of apostolic preaching
preach/proclaim (katangellō, 13:5, 38; 15:36; 16:17; 17:13, 23; 26:23)
preach/proclaim (kēryssō, 8:5; 9:20; 10:37; 19:13; 20:25)
preaching and teaching (kēryssō . . . didaskō, 28:31)
proclaim and teach (anangellō . . . didaskō, 20:20)
proclaim (anangellō, 20:27)
teaching and proclaiming the good news (didaskō . . . euangelizō, 5:42; 15:35) teaching and proclaiming (didaskō . . . katangellō, 4:2)
teaching (didaskō, 5:21, 25, 28; 11:26; 18:11; 21:21, 28) to speak or teach (phthengomai . . . didaskō, 4:18, 20)
speak (laleō, 2:4, 6–7, 11; 4:1, 17, 20, 29, 31; 5:20, 40; 6:10–11, 13; 10:44; 11:14–15, 19; 13:42, 46; 14:1, 9, 25; 16:6, 13–14, 32; 17:19; 18:9; 21:39; cf. also the use of legō)
spoke and debated (laleō . . . syzēteō, 9:29)
speak and preach the good news (laleō . . . euangelizō, 11:20)
preach the good news (euangelizō, 8:4, 12, 35, 40; 10:36; 13:32; 14:7, 15, 21; 16:10; 17:18)
testify and proclaim and preach the good news (diamartyromai kai laleō . . . euangelizō, 8:25)
to preach and to testify (kēryssō . . . diamartyromai, 10:42)
testify . . . bear witness (diamartyromai . . . martyreō, 23:11)
warned and pleaded (diamartyromai . . . parakaleō, 2:40)
testify solemnly/declare (diamartyromai, 18:5; 20:21, 24)
explained, declared, tried to convince (ektithēmi, diamartyromai, peithō, 28:23)
testify (martyromai, 20:26; 26:22)
preached fearlessly/speaking boldly (parrēsiazomai, 9:27–28; 13:46; 14:3; 18:26; 26:26)
spoke, taught, preach boldly (laleō . . . didaskō . . . parrēsiazomai, 18:25–26)
speaking boldly, reasoning, persuading (parrēsiazomai . . . dialegomai . . . peithō, 19:8)
reasoning (dialegomai, 17:17; 18:19; 19:9; 20:7, 9; 24:25)
reasoned, persuading (dialegomai . . . peithō, 18:4)
persuade (peithō, 13:43; 17:4; 19:26; 26:28; 28:24)
reasoned, explaining, proving, proclaiming (dialegomai, dianoigō, paratithēmi, katangellō, 17:3)
proving (symbibazō, 9:22)
refuted (diakatelenchomai, 18:28)
Table 3: Summary descriptions of the message preached in Acts
the word of God (ho logos tou theou, 4:31; 6:7; 8:14; 11:1; 13:5, 7, 46; 17:13; 18:11)
the word of the Lord (ho logos tou kyriou, 8:25; 13:44, 48–49; 15:35–36; 16:32; 19:10, 20)
the word/message (logos, 4:4; 6:4; 8:4; 11:19; 14:25; 17:11) your word (ton logon sou, 4:29)
the word of this salvation (ho logos tēs sōtērias tautēs, 13:26)
the word of his grace (ho logos tēs charitos autou, 14:3; 20:32)
the word of the gospel (ho logos tou euangeliou, 15:7)
in Jesus the resurrection from the dead (en tō Iēsou tēn anastasin tēn ek nekrōn, 4:2)
what we have seen and heard (ha eidamen kai ēkousamen, 4:20)
the resurrection of the Lord Jesus (tēs anastaseōs tou kyriou Iēsou, 4:33)
the teaching about the Lord (hē didachē tou kyriou, 13:12)
the full message of this new life (panta ta rhēmata tēs zōēs tautēs, 5:20)
a message (rhēma) through which you will be saved (sōthēsē) you and all your household (11:14)
the way to be saved (katangellousin hymin hodon sōtērias, 16:17)
preach the good news/gospel (euangelizō, 8:25, 40; 13:32; 14:7, 15, 21; 15:35; 16:10)
what God promised our fathers he has fulfilled for us, their children, by raising up Jesus (13:32–33)
the good news that the Christ is Jesus (euangelizomenoi ton Christon Iēsoun, 5:42; 18:5, 28)
the Christ (ton Christon, 8:5)
that he (Jesus) is the Christ (hoti houtos estin ho Christos, 9:22)
the good news about Jesus (euēngelisato autō ton Iēsoun, 8:35)
that Jesus is the Son of God (ton Iēsoun hoti houtos estin ho huios tou theou, 9:20)
the good news about the Lord Jesus (euangelizomenoi ton kyrion Iēsoun, 11:20)
to believe in . . . Jesus (hina pisteusōsin . . . eis ton Iēsoun, 19:4)
the kingdom of God (peri tēs basileias tou theou, 19:8)
that it was necessary for the Christ to suffer and to rise from the dead . . . this Jesus is the Christ (hoti ton Christen edei pathein kai anastēnai ek nekrōn . . . houtos estin ho Christos [ho] Iēsous, 17:3)
the good news about Jesus and the resurrection (ton Iēsoun kai tēn anastasin euēngelizeto, 17:18)
the good news of the kingdom of God and the name of Jesus Christ (euangelizomenō peri tēs basileias tou theou kai tou onomatos Iēsou Christou, 8:12)
the good news of peace through Jesus Christ (euangelizomenos eirēnēn dia Iēsou Christou, 10:36)
repentance to God and faith in our Lord Jesus (tēn eis theon metanoian kai pistin eis ton kyrion hēmōn Iēsoun, 20:21)
repent and turn to God (metanoein kai epistrephein epi ton theon, 26:20)
the gospel of God’s grace (to euangelion tēs charitos tou theou, 20:24)
the whole will of God (pasan tēn boulēn tou theou, 20:27)
preaching the kingdom (kēryssōn tēn basileian, 20:25)
faith in Christ Jesus . . . righteousness, self-control and the judgment to come (peri tēs eis Christon Iēsoun pisteōs . . . dikaiosynēs kai enkrateias kai tou krimatos tou mellontos, 24:24–25)
the Christ must suffer, and by being first to rise from the dead, he would proclaim light . . . (ei pathētos ho Christos, ei prōtos ex anastaseōs nekrōn phōs mellei katangellein, 26:23)
declaring the kingdom of God and . . . about Jesus (diamartyromenos tēn basileian tou theou . . . peri tou Iēsou, 28:23)
preaching the kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ (kēryssōn tēn basileian tou theou kai didaskōn ta peri tou kyriou Iēsou Christou, 28:31)