Excursus: an expositional outline of Acts

Chapter One

Living ‘between the times’: the kingdom of God

We have seen that Luke primarily wrote Acts to provide assurance to his readers concerning the purposes and plan of God. This, in addition to the likelihood that he is aiming to highlight the ‘continuing story’ of the fulfilment of God’s promises for his people, indicates that we should look primarily for what Luke is saying about God and his purposes in Acts and how this may provide reassurance for his readers. Thus this chapter will continue the discussion of the last chapter by focusing on what Luke says about the outworking of God’s purposes with a treatment of the sovereignty of God, the kingdom of God, the reign of Christ and the spread of the word in the midst of opposition. We will see that Luke is drawing attention to the continued outworking of God’s saving purposes specifically in the inaugurated kingdom of God through the reign of the Lord Jesus. It is within this framework that Luke wants his readers to see his account of the unstoppable spread of the word and the strengthening of local churches in the midst of persecution and opposition.

The sovereignty of God

Although many often approach the book of Acts by focusing primarily on the human participants in the narrative (such as Peter and the apostles, Paul, Stephen, Cornelius), the focus in the book of Acts is actually on God. That Luke is highlighting the sovereignty of God in history is indicated by his use of key terms as well as the way in which he describes God’s involvement in the history of Israel, the events surrounding the life, death and resurrection of Jesus, and the subsequent developments in the history of the church that he is recounting. We will examine this broad theme of the accomplishment of God’s purposes first before focusing attention on the kingdom of God and the continuing reign of the Lord Jesus.

Key terms

As noted in the previous chapter, one of the ways the book of Acts evidences a theological understanding of history in which God is in control and fulfilling his covenant promises is in the prominence of terms that indicate divine sovereignty. The most prominent term in Acts that draws attention to ‘divine necessity’ is dei, ‘it is necessary’. The term occurs 40 times in Luke-Acts (18 in Luke; 22 in Acts), which is almost twice as many times as in all 13 of Paul’s letters (24 times in total), and significantly more than anywhere else in the NT (6 in Mark, 8 in Matthew, 10 in John). Although the term does not always refer to divine necessity (i.e. Acts 15:5; 16:30; 19:36; 25:24), Luke particularly highlights divine necessity in the life, death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus ( Luke 2:49; 4:43; 9:22; 13:33; 17:25; 22:37; 24:7, 26, 44; Acts 1:16; 3:21; 17:3), the calling, suffering and journeys of Paul (Acts 9:16; 19:21; 23:11; 27:24, 26) and suffering in the life of believers (14:22). As Walton correctly observes, ‘This Lukan favourite term exposes his belief that God has a purpose which is being carried out through the stories which Luke tells in Acts.’

Israel’s history

The narrative summaries of Israel’s history given in the speeches of Stephen (Acts 7) and Paul (Acts 13) also draw attention to the view (which Luke adopts in his summary of these speeches) that God has directed Israel’s history and that current events in Acts are a continuation of these histories.

God’s sovereignty in Israel’s history in Acts 7

In Stephen’s speech (Acts 7:2–46) the term theos, ‘God’, is mentioned sixteen times (the term kyrios, ‘Lord’, is also used twice with reference to God) and God is the subject of the action in the narrative. God appeared to, spoke to, gave promises to and sent Abraham (vv. 2–8); he was with, rescued and gave wisdom to Joseph (vv. 9–10); he fulfilled his promise to Abraham in rescuing the people of Israel (vv. 5, 17); he appeared to, sent and used Moses to deliver the people of Israel (vv. 25, 31–35); he directed Moses concerning the construction of the tabernacle, drove out the nations before Israel and was favourable to David (vv. 44–46). Running throughout this narrative account of Israel’s history is an undercurrent of the rejection of God’s messengers (Joseph, v. 9; Moses, vv. 27, 35, 39). This rejection and even resistance (v. 51) to God’s messengers, however, does not leave God inactive. Despite the actions of the patriarchs, God accomplished his purposes through Joseph (vv. 9–10). Although the Israelites worshipped ‘what their hands had made’, God turned away from Israel, handed them over to idol worship and sent them into exile as promised (vv. 41–43). In fact, as Stephen nears the end of his speech he quotes Isaiah 66:1–2, which declares that heaven is God’s throne, the earth his footstool and God has ‘made all these things’ (Acts 7:49–50).

This pattern comes to the fore in Stephen’s conclusion, where he declares that his audience is following the pattern of those (their fathers) who persecuted the prophets. Even though their fathers killed those who predicted the coming of Jesus, and Stephen’s audience followed suit in betraying and murdering this Righteous One, still the one predicted came just as God’s messengers, the prophets, had predicted. The appearance again of the glory of God (cf. vv. 2, 55), and now the person of Jesus at the right hand of God, clearly shows that God’s purposes were not thwarted but accomplished through this rejected Righteous One. This reappearance together with the clear allusions to Jesus’ own actions at his death (cf. vv. 59–60 with Luke 23:34, 46) as Stephen is murdered indicate that this pattern is continuing. Stephen is God’s messenger, now not as a messenger anticipating the coming of the Lord Jesus, but as one who points to (vv. 55–56), even prays to (vv. 59–60), and reflects the character of the Lord Jesus (vv. 59–60).

God’s sovereignty in Israel’s history in Acts 13

In Paul’s speech in Acts 13:16–37 God is again the main character in the history of Israel and is again the subject of the main verbs. This time the emphasis is not so much on the rejection of God’s messengers but the gracious provision of God for his people. The God of Israel chose their fathers, made the people prosper in Egypt, led them out, bore with them in the wilderness, overthrew the nations and gave them the land (vv. 17–20). Then God gave the people judges, installed and removed Saul as king, and made David king (vv. 20–22). In fact, it was only when David had served God’s purposes in his own generation that he fell asleep (v. 36). Finally, it is from the descendants of David that God brings to Israel, as he promised (implying also a preservation of that promise through those descendants), the Saviour, Jesus (vv. 23–37). God’s purposes were fulfilled in the condemnation and execution of Jesus (vv. 27–29) and God raised Jesus from the dead (vv. 30–37). The anticipation that God would do something incredible in their days (v. 41), the promise of light for the Gentiles and salvation for the ends of the earth (v. 47) and the granting of eternal life to ‘all who were appointed’ (v. 48) indicate that the culmination of God’s sovereign and gracious provision for his people comes in the offer of salvation (v. 26), forgiveness of sins (v. 38), justification (v. 39) and eternal life (vv. 46, 48), by God’s grace (v. 43), through the death and resurrection of the Lord Jesus to all who would believe, even Gentiles (v. 48).

Jesus’ life, death and resurrection Jesus’ life

The surveys of God’s actions in Israel’s history given above have already indicated that part of Luke’s purpose is to highlight the continued accomplishment of God’s purposes in Jesus’ ministry despite the rejection he faced from his own people. This is seen in his description of God’s involvement in all aspects of Jesus’ ministry: his life, death and resurrection. Regarding Jesus’ life, Peter’s summary in Acts 2:22 is that God accredited Jesus to the people of Israel by miracles, wonders and signs, which God did among them through Jesus. Similarly, in Acts 10:36–38 Peter states that God is the one who sent the word (logos) to Israel, ‘telling the good news of peace through Jesus Christ’. Furthermore, God anointed Jesus with the Holy Spirit and power and Jesus ‘went around doing good and healing all who were under the power of the devil, because God was with him’ (10:38). Again, in Acts 13:23 Paul states that God is the one who has ‘brought to Israel the Saviour Jesus, as he promised’.

Jesus’ death

Regarding Jesus’ death, Luke’s Gospel emphasizes the accomplishment of God’s purpose even if the wickedness and culpability of those involved in Jesus’ death are also maintained. Predicted by Jesus himself (Luke 9:22; 13:33) in keeping with the predictions of the Scriptures (Luke 18:31; 24:26–27, 44–46), it is clear that the Christ ‘had to (dei) suffer’ (24:26) because everything written about him ‘must (dei) be fulfilled’ (24:44). Even the betrayal by Judas, though deserving of judgment, is described in terms of the Son of Man going ‘as it has been decreed’ (22:22).

When we come to Acts, the same emphasis on the accomplishment of God’s purposes remains, as does the accompanying responsibility of those involved. Between the ascension of Jesus ‘into heaven’ in Acts 1:11 and the descent of the sound like a violent wind ‘from heaven’ in Acts 2:1–4 there seems to be an unusual digression that focuses on Judas’ death and his replacement (Acts 1:12–26). Part of the reason for this lengthy excursus is to highlight the restoration of the number of apostles to twelve in keeping with the promises of Jesus concerning the role the twelve would play over the people of Israel (cf. Luke 22:30). The dominant feature of the passage, however, is that the sovereign plan of God has not been derailed by this most wicked of actions – a betrayal from among the ranks of Jesus’ own inner circle. Far from discrediting the ministry of Jesus, this betrayal was anticipated. In verse 16 the language of ‘had to’ (dei), ‘be fulfilled’, ‘which the Holy Spirit spoke . . . concerning Judas’ and ‘long ago’ indicates that this betrayal ought to be no surprise and has long been anticipated. Furthermore, the sovereign plan of God is continuing to be worked out in the provision of a replacement for Judas. This too Scripture anticipated (Acts 1:20, citing Ps. 109:8). Following prayer to the Lord requesting that he show them whom he has chosen, the decision is made by casting lots. Although there is no direct allusion to Proverbs 16:33 here, as Marshall correctly observes, ‘it clearly was the basis of the method chosen here’. That proverb, of course, attributes God’s sovereignty even to the apparent randomness of casting lots as ‘its every decision is from the Lord’. The point seems to be that God’s plan and the role of Jesus’ followers continue to be on track despite apparently disastrous circumstances.

A similar juxtaposition of the sovereign plan of God and the responsibility of those involved in Jesus’ death is found in Acts 2:23 and 4:27–28. In 2:23, despite the fact that Peter’s listeners, with the help of wicked men, were responsible for putting Jesus to death, Jesus is said to have been ‘handed over’ (ekdoton) by the ‘predetermined’ (horizō) ‘plan’ (boulē) and ‘foreknowledge’ (prognōsis) of God (‘God’s set purpose and foreknowledge’ NIV). Similarly, in 4:27–28 Herod, Pilate, the Gentiles and the people of Israel conspire together in opposition to Jesus, the holy servant anointed by God. Nevertheless, they do what God’s ‘hand’ (cheir) and ‘plan’ (boulē) had ‘predetermined’ (proōrisen) to happen. Likewise in 13:27–29 Paul states that although the people of Jerusalem and their rulers condemned Jesus and asked Pilate to have him executed, they nevertheless ‘fulfilled the words of the prophets that are read every Sabbath’ and ‘carried out all that was written about him’. Thus repeatedly throughout Luke and Acts, although the wickedness and culpability of those involved in Jesus’ death are not diminished, the purpose and plan of God are said to have been carried out.

Jesus’ resurrection

A consistent feature of references to Jesus’ resurrection in Acts is the statement that ‘God raised him from the dead.’ Returning to passages mentioned above, just as God is the subject accomplishing his purposes in the summaries of Israel’s history, so he is the subject accomplishing his purposes in the summaries of Jesus’ ‘history’. In Acts 2, following references to God’s accreditation of Jesus, his accomplishment of miracles through Jesus and the outworking of his predetermined plan in the death of Jesus, Peter states that God is also the one who raised him from the dead (2:24 and again in 2:32). Likewise in Acts 10, following an account of how God sent the ‘word’ to Israel, anointed Jesus and was with Jesus for him to do good and heal, Peter states that God raised him from the dead, caused him to be seen, chose those who would see him and appointed Jesus as judge (10:40–42). In Acts 13 Paul’s speech combines these ‘histories’ of Israel and Jesus. He highlights God’s actions in choosing the fathers, guiding Israel’s history (13:17–22) and finally bringing to Israel Jesus as promised, whose death fulfils the words of the prophets and all that was written about him (13:23–29). Paul follows this summary of God’s actions in the history of Israel and the life and death of Jesus with an emphasis on God’s action in raising Jesus from the dead. That God is the one who raised Jesus from the dead is stated four times in the following eight verses (13:30, 33, 34, 37). Though more on the significance of Jesus’ resurrection will be given in the following chapter, at this point we merely note that Luke is highlighting the continued accomplishment of God’s sovereign purposes in the death of Jesus (even through the wicked actions of those who put Jesus to death) and in the resurrection of Jesus.

Subsequent developments in the church

In Acts, Luke is, of course, writing an account that is subsequent to the events in the history of Israel and the events surrounding the life, death and resurrection of Jesus. Here too, however, Luke aims to show that God is continuing to accomplish his purposes. In addition to the language of fulfilment that is pervasive throughout Acts and the specific interventions of angels or the Holy Spirit to direct the spread of the Gospel, there are emphases on God’s action in moving the events of the narrative along. Perhaps the most prominent aspect of God’s action in Acts involves the inclusion of the Gentiles. This is seen especially in the conversion of Cornelius but also in later summaries of ministry among the Gentiles in Acts.

The conversion of Cornelius and his household

In the account of Cornelius’ conversion the action of God is highlighted in Cornelius’ vision in which an angel instructs him concerning where and how to find Peter (10:3–6) and Peter’s vision concerning God’s declaration of what has been made clean followed by instruction from the Spirit about the men who were looking for Peter (10:9–20). In addition to these obvious indications of specific divine guidance, what is striking about the account of these events is the stress on the ‘coincidences’ of timing throughout the narrative. It is as the three men were ‘approaching the city’ that ‘Peter went up on the roof to pray’ (v. 9). It is ‘while Peter was wondering about the meaning of the vision’ that ‘the men sent by Cornelius found out where Simon’s house was and stopped at the gate’ (v. 17). It is then ‘while Peter was still thinking about the vision’ that the Spirit tells him about the three men looking for him and tells him to go downstairs and to go with them (vv. 19–20). The emphasis on God’s timing reaches a climax when it was ‘while Peter was still speaking’ that ‘the Holy Spirit came on all who heard the message’ (v. 44). Peter’s retelling of the account also highlights the amazing timing of the events when, after recounting the vision, he states that ‘right then (kai idou exautēs) three men who had been sent to me from Caesarea stopped at the house where I was staying’ (11:11). Then Peter states that it was as he began to speak that the Holy Spirit came upon them (11:15), indicating again that he had more to say and that the Spirit came ‘without any initiative on his part’. That this is all meant to highlight the sovereign action of God in including Cornelius is emphasized at the conclusion to the account in 11:17–18. Peter concludes his summary of the events by stating that it was God who gave them the Holy Spirit and adding, ‘who was I to think that I could oppose God?’ The Jewish believers respond by praising God and marvelling that ‘God has granted even the Gentiles repentance unto life’.

This same stress on God’s action in including the Gentiles in Acts 10 – 11 is found in Peter’s summary of these events before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. Peter states that God made the choice that Gentiles would hear the message of the gospel from his mouth and that they would believe (15:7). Furthermore, God is the one who gave them the Holy Spirit, showing that he accepted them, that he made no distinction between the two groups and that he had purified their hearts by faith (vv. 8–9). James’s summary at the conclusion of the Council looks back to Peter’s account as a description of how God had ‘showed his concern by taking from the Gentiles a people for himself’, which is in agreement with the words of prophets (vv. 14–15).

Paul’s ministry among Gentiles

In addition to this specific inclusion of the Gentile Cornelius and his household through faith, summaries of Gentile inclusion that frame the beginning and end of Paul’s ministry to Gentiles in Acts also highlight God’s sovereignty. These summaries attribute the whole of Paul’s ministry among Gentiles and the response of Gentiles to the work of God. In the context leading up to the Jerusalem Council Paul and Barnabas have returned to Antioch, having completed ‘the work’ under the grace of God (14:26). This was ‘the work’ to which they had been called, set apart and sent by the Holy Spirit (13:2–4). In Antioch they report to the church ‘all that God had done through them and how he had opened the door of faith to the Gentiles’ (14:27). On their way to the Jerusalem Council Paul and Barnabas travel through Phoenicia and Samaria telling how the Gentiles have been converted, and upon arrival in Jerusalem report to the welcoming church, apostles and elders ‘everything God had done through them’ (15:3–4). At the Jerusalem Council itself Paul and Barnabas tell about ‘the miraculous signs and wonders God had done among the Gentiles through them’ (v. 12). At the end of Paul’s ministry as a free man in Acts, when he arrives in Jerusalem in Acts 21, he reports again to the welcoming brothers in Jerusalem, including James and the elders. Luke states that Paul recounted in detail (lit. ‘each one of the things’) ‘what God had done among the Gentiles through his ministry’, which elicits a response of praise to God from these church leaders in Jerusalem (21:19–20). Although more could be said, it seems clear that one of Luke’s aims is to reassure readers such as Theophilus that God is continuing to accomplish his purposes (as promised in the OT) in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus, and in the developments subsequent to Jesus’ earthly ministry by the inclusion of Gentiles among the followers of Jesus. Luke’s focus on the accomplishment of God’s purposes, however, must also be understood in the context of his references to the kingdom of God. It is to this that we now turn.

The kingdom of God

In the discussion that follows we will see that Luke’s focus on the accomplishment of God’s saving purposes is placed within the specific framework of the inauguration of God’s kingdom in the ministry of Jesus. Although there are not a large number of references to the kingdom of God in Acts, their strategic placement and contexts indicate an importance that outweighs the number of occurrences of the phrase. Before looking at Acts, however, I will briefly clarify the relationship between the sovereignty of God and the phrase ‘the kingdom of God’ and summarize the use of the phrase in the Gospel of Luke.

The kingdom of God and the sovereignty of God

There is a sense in which the phrase ‘kingdom of God’ refers to God’s universal sovereignty. God always rules over his creation, he is the sovereign King over all he has made and ‘his kingdom rules over all’. In this sense, given that all are under God’s sovereign rule, all are in God’s kingdom. The OT, however, also anticipates a time when God’s rule will be established in keeping with his saving promises. This will be a time when the enemies of God and the enemies of his people will be defeated and God’s people will be blessed. The arrival of the kingdom of God in this sense is something like ‘the fulfilment of God’s saving promises’ or ‘the saving rule of God’ and one must ‘receive’ the kingdom or ‘enter into’ the kingdom (Luke 18:17) to participate in these saving promises. It is the accomplishment of this saving rule already, in advance of the final consummation, even in the midst of continued opposition, that Luke particularly highlights.

The kingdom of God in Luke’s Gospel

The arrival of the kingdom

The kingdom of God is of course a major aspect of Jesus’ ministry in Luke’s Gospel, as it is in each of the Synoptic Gospels. The statements which summarize Jesus’ ministry in Luke 4:43, 8:1, 9:2, 11, 16:16 and 18:29 indicate that ‘preaching the kingdom of God’ epitomizes Jesus’ ministry. Jesus’ teaching about the kingdom of God is best understood along the lines of ‘inaugurated eschatology’, or, in the words of George Ladd, ‘fulfilment without consummation’. That is, there is both an ‘already’ and a ‘not yet’ aspect to the kingdom. Thus, in keeping with OT expectations, Jesus expected a future consummation of the kingdom. The more striking element of Jesus’ teaching in the Gospels, however, is that he did not just announce a future kingdom; he announced the present arrival of that kingdom in his own ministry. In Luke’s Gospel the presence of the kingdom is especially emphasized in Luke 10:9, 11; 11:20; and 17:21. In Luke 10:9, 11 Jesus tells his disciples to go into the towns ahead of him and announce that ‘the kingdom of God is near’ (with the sense of arrival), and Luke 10:9 adds that the kingdom has come ‘upon you’ (eph hymas). In 11:20 exorcisms by Jesus are tied to the presence of the kingdom, which is said to have ‘come to you’. In 17:21, a passage unique to Luke’s Gospel, Jesus answers a question about the kingdom’s presence by stating that the kingdom of God is ‘among you’ (NIV mg.). Given that this is a response to the Pharisees, it is unlikely to be a statement about a spiritual internalization of the kingdom in their hearts but is rather a declaration that the kingdom of God is ‘in their presence’. That is, in the context of the previous verses, the point is that the kingdom has come with the coming of the King, and the Pharisees should not miss the presence of the kingdom right before their eyes. Entrance to the kingdom, therefore, is possible already and requires a response to Jesus.

Entrance into the kingdom

Although space prevents a full discussion of the importance of the kingdom of God throughout Luke’s Gospel, we will focus on one particular narrative unit, Luke 18:9 – 19:10, which is the concluding part of the long journey section (Luke 9 – 19) in Luke’s Gospel before Jesus’ arrival in Jerusalem. We will focus on this unit primarily because of its important narrative location (at the culmination of Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem) and its emphasis on the kingdom. Broadly speaking, Luke 18:9 – 19:10 includes the parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector, children being brought to Jesus, the rich ruler, a prediction of Jesus’ death and resurrection, a blind beggar receiving sight, and culminates in the account of Zacchaeus the tax collector. Rather than being an arbitrary collection of events from Jesus’ life, however, this section particularly stresses the response of those who will enter the kingdom of God. A variety of expressions are used to describe the result of this response: justification (18:14), receiving or entering the kingdom of God (18:16–17, 24–25), eternal life (18:18, 29), receiving mercy (18:13, 38–39) and salvation (18:26, 42; 19:9–10). As with the descriptions of the result, there are also a variety of ways of expressing the required response of those who will enter the kingdom. This response is to be characterized by a humble acknowledgment of one’s sinfulness (18:14), dependent trust in Jesus alone (18:16–17, 37–42), and an abandonment of any other source of confidence (18:11–12, 18–30; 19:1–10). In each case Jesus is the one who determines what this response should be and is the one to whom the response must be made. Thus those who respond are described as those who come to him (18:16), follow him (18:22, 28, 43), have faith in him (18:42) or welcome him gladly (19:6). Tucked away in the middle of this section is Jesus’ final and most detailed prediction of his impending suffering, death and resurrection in Jerusalem (18:31–33). The conclusion to this long journey anticipated since 9:51 and referred to regularly along the way is now imminent. Thus this detailed description of what Jesus is about to face indicates again that the Jesus to whom response must be made in order to enter the kingdom of God is the soon-to-be rejected, suffering, dying and resurrected Jesus.

The departure and return of the king

Luke 19:11–27 is a concluding parable to the journey section that continues this focus on the kingdom of God (19:11) before the transitional section in 19:28–44 describing the approach of ‘the king’ to Jerusalem (note 19:38). This parable is another clue that Luke connects the kingship of Jesus with the kingdom of God. Luke tells us that Jesus told this parable ‘because he was near Jerusalem and the people thought that the kingdom of God was going to appear at once’ (19:11). The concluding parable in 19:11–27 therefore comes in the context of Jesus’ imminent arrival in Jerusalem and deals with false expectations concerning Jerusalem and the kingdom of God. The parable focuses on a man who is appointed king and the responses to his kingdom (19:12, 14–15, 27). In particular, even though the reign of this king is rejected (19:14, 27) he nevertheless departs and receives a kingdom (19:12, 15) and returns to call his servants to account for their service (19:15–27). In view of the impending arrival in Jerusalem, the response of the rulers and crowds, and the betrayal by Judas, the parable seems to indicate again (i.e. as with 18:31–33) that Jesus’ death and rejection in Jerusalem are integral to the kingdom and must come first. Furthermore, Jesus’ disciples must be prepared for a period of faithful service before the king returns; judgment of the king’s enemies is still to come. Following the unfolding of the events in Jerusalem in Luke 20 – 23, Jesus provides clarification in Luke 24 regarding the promises of the Scriptures for Israel (24:21), the death and resurrection of the Messiah (24:25–27, 44–46), and the role of Jerusalem (24:47, 52) and the nations (24:47) in the light of his resurrection (24:31, 36–43) and in ways that recall hopes for Israel and the nations in the opening chapters of Luke’s Gospel. The stage is set for further clarification concerning the next stage in the kingdom between the king’s departure and return.

The kingdom of God in Acts

Having surveyed briefly some of the emphases concerning the kingdom of God in Luke’s Gospel, we are now better prepared to understand the significance of Luke’s strategic placement of references to the kingdom of God in Acts. Announcing the arrival of the kingdom of God was a major aspect of Jesus’ ministry. Now that Jesus has suffered, died, risen and ascended as he said he would, what happens next? As Jesus’ teaching indicated, the kingdom has come ‘already’; nevertheless, the kingdom has ‘not yet’ been consummated in fullness and there will be a period in-between. So what does the kingdom of God look like now in this period of the ‘now and not yet’? Jesus himself stressed that people enter the kingdom as they humbly trust in him. How do people enter the kingdom now that he has departed? What is the ‘king’ of the kingdom doing now? How will God’s saving purposes be carried out now? What about the promises of the OT regarding the blessings of the kingdom age? What about the institutions of Israel and the leadership of Israel? Who are God’s people now and who leads them? If followers of Jesus are ‘in the kingdom of God’, why do they face suffering and why are they opposed? Questions such as these are what the book of Acts addresses within the ‘framework’ of ‘the kingdom of God’ between the ‘now’ and the ‘not yet’.

Luke’s ‘framing’ references to the kingdom in Acts 1 and 28

Although there are eight references to the specific phrases ‘the kingdom of God’ or ‘the kingdom’ in Acts, the particular location and contexts of two references to the kingdom of God at the beginning and another two at the end of Acts (1:3, 6; 28:23, 31) indicate that Luke is ‘framing’ his work with these references and that readers are meant to read the material between chapters 1 and 28 within this ‘frame’. In addition to the observation that two references to the kingdom of God introduce and another two conclude the book of Acts, the contexts of these references indicate that Luke is referring to the concept of the kingdom in the narrative of Acts more often than just where the specific phrase occurs. In these contexts there is an emphasis on comprehensive teaching about the kingdom of God and an association of the kingdom of God with major themes found elsewhere in Acts.

At the beginning of Acts the kingdom of God is presented in 1:3 as the one topic of conversation during Jesus’ forty-day instruction of his disciples before his ascension. Then in 1:6 the question about the restoration of the kingdom to Israel is raised in the context of this forty-day instruction concerning the kingdom of God in 1:2–5. Acts 1:8 is clearly ‘programmatic’ for the geographical spread of the gospel in Acts. It should also be noted, however, that Jesus’ answer to the disciples’ question about the kingdom relates to Israel, promises of restoration, Jesus’ own role in that restoration, the role of the Holy Spirit, the role of the apostles as witnesses of Jesus, and the place of Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria and ‘the ends of the earth’ in this restoration. The significance of this question concerning the kingdom in the context of Acts 1:1–8 is such that we will examine it in more detail in chapter 3 (on Israel and the kingdom) and chapter 4 (on the Holy Spirit and the kingdom). At this stage we are merely noting that Jesus’ teaching to the disciples and Jesus’ answer to the disciples’ question are obviously foundational for what the rest of the book is about: the kingdom!

At the end of Acts, in 28:23, the context is a climactic meeting between Paul and ‘large numbers’ of the Jewish leaders in Rome, and again the emphasis is on extensive instruction. This time, although the time mentioned is just one day, Luke states that Paul explained and declared to them the kingdom of God ‘from morning till evening’. In this context Paul has just stated that he is in chains because of ‘the hope of Israel’ (28:20) and, along with explaining the kingdom of God, he ‘tried to convince them about Jesus from the Law of Moses and from the Prophets’ (28:23). Thus comprehensiveness is emphasized in both the extended amount of time and in the extensive amount of content referred to. The last reference to the kingdom of God in Acts is also the final verse of the book of Acts. Once again the kingdom is mentioned in the context of comprehensive explanation. In Acts 28:31 we are told that Paul ‘preached the kingdom of God and taught about the Lord Jesus Christ’. There appears to be a certain extensiveness of teaching implied in the association of ‘the things about the Lord Jesus Christ’ and the full title given to Jesus here. The context of this final summary statement of Paul’s teaching, however, is given in Acts 28:30 where we are told that Paul stayed for ‘two whole years’ in his rented house preaching the kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ. Thus the final note sounded in Acts is the bold proclamation of ‘the kingdom of God’.

It has sometimes been noted that references to the kingdom of God in Acts are shorthand summaries for apostolic preaching. The fact that 8:12, 28:23 and 31 also identify Jesus as the subject of this preaching indicates, as Dodd notes, that

the kingdom of God is conceived as coming in the events of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus, and to proclaim these facts, in their proper setting [i.e. in the light of the promises of the OT], is to preach the gospel of the Kingdom of God.

Peterson also correctly observes that, in the light of Luke 24:44–47 and Acts 1:3, Jesus was showing the apostles ‘how to proclaim the kingdom appropriately, in light of “the things which have been accomplished among us” ’. Although there is an emphasis on how the kingdom is proclaimed, it appears that Luke has more in mind than that. As noted above, the opening references to the kingdom of God in Acts 1:3 and 6 are set in contexts where Jesus is explaining the nature of the kingdom of God, not just how to proclaim the kingdom of God. Although more detailed attention will be given to 1:6–8 in chapters 3 and 4, we have already noted here that Jesus’ answer addresses not only the content of the proclamation (they will be witnesses of Jesus) but also the unfolding of events significant for understanding the nature of the kingdom after his ascension (i.e. the place of Israel, the eschatological promise of the Spirit, the fulfilment of God’s saving promises). As noted above, this teaching on the kingdom in the opening verses of Acts is obviously foundational for what the rest of the book is about.

An indication that Luke is drawing our attention to the setting of this period of the kingdom before the ‘not yet’ consummation of the kingdom is found in 1:10–11, immediately after Jesus’ answer to the disciples’ question about the kingdom. This is now Luke’s third reference to Jesus’ ascension. Although attention has rightly been paid to the importance of the ascension in Acts 1 (see below on ), one feature of this particular reference to the ascension appears to be the fact that ‘this same Jesus, who has been taken from you into heaven, will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven’. That is, just as Jesus taught in the Gospel of Luke (see above), there is going to be an interim period, there is a ‘not yet’ aspect to the kingdom even if the times and dates of God’s schedule are not for the disciples to know (1:7).

To summarize: in the light of the double references to the kingdom in the introduction and conclusion of Acts, the emphasis on comprehensive teaching on the kingdom associated with these references, the explanation given by Jesus about the kingdom in the opening verses of Acts, and the fact that Luke chooses to end his work on the subject of the kingdom of God in the last verse, it seems that these are important ‘framing’ verses for understanding Luke’s focus in the book of Acts. The book of Acts, therefore, is not just a sequel to the Gospel of Luke in the sense that it describes the spread of the gospel, or in the sense that it describes the growth of the church, or in the way it describes the inclusion of Gentiles. Though the book of Acts includes all of these elements, this ‘frame’ for the book indicates that the book of Acts is a sequel to the Gospel of Luke in the sense that all of these elements are placed within the ‘framework’ of Luke’s explanation of what the kingdom of God looks like now that Jesus has come, announced the arrival of the kingdom, died, risen and ascended to the right hand of the Father. Readers such as Theophilus may be reassured that God’s saving plan, his kingdom, is continuing to be worked out through the crucified and risen Lord Jesus in keeping with Jesus’ own teaching. The continuing role of the Lord Jesus in the kingdom, therefore, must also be examined in this context.

The continuing reign of the Lord Jesus

As noted above, a major emphasis of Jesus’ teaching was that the kingdom of God had already arrived. The kingdom of God had arrived, said Jesus, because the kingdom of God was present in his ministry. Because he, the King of the kingdom was here, entrance to the kingdom was through response to him. The actions of Jesus presented further evidence for his claims concerning the arrival of God’s kingdom. The natural question after Jesus’ departure then would be, ‘What about the kingdom now?’ Luke tells Theophilus in the first verse in Acts that his first book was all about what Jesus began to do and teach. The implication of these opening words in Acts is that he is now going to write about all that Jesus continues to do and teach. Thus we may now get even more specific about what the book of Acts is about. Luke’s Gospel was written to provide assurance to Theophilus about the person and work of Jesus, that God’s purposes were accomplished through him, that Jesus’ suffering and death were anticipated in Scripture, and that Jesus brought about the inauguration of God’s kingdom, the fulfilment of God’s saving promises. The book of Acts, therefore, is about the continuation of those saving promises, the kingdom of God, through the Lord Jesus. Jesus is still the mediator of that kingdom, the one who administers those saving promises and the one who carries out God’s saving plan.

Luke’s statement in the first verse of Acts that his first book was about all that Jesus began to do and teach and therefore that his second book will be about what Jesus is continuing to do and teach is already a corrective to some popular approaches to Acts. Strictly speaking then the book is not primarily about the ‘Acts of the Apostles’. After Acts 1, of the twelve apostles named in 1:13 and 26, only the names of Peter and John appear again. Some have correctly noted the importance of the Holy Spirit in Acts and have suggested that the book should be called the ‘Acts of the Holy Spirit’. As important as the Holy Spirit is in Acts, it should be noted that even this designation does not quite capture the emphasis of Luke in Acts. Acts 1:1 indicates that the book is going to be about what Jesus is continuing to do and teach; therefore, the ‘Acts of the Risen Lord Jesus’ would be a better title. It must be said, though, that this could also be understood as a shorthand expression for something like ‘the Acts of the Lord Jesus, through his people, by the Holy Spirit, for the accomplishment of God’s purposes’! Some have thought that Acts exhibits an ‘absentee Christology’ in which Christ has departed and is now ‘absent’. Zwiep even claims that Luke’s Christology ‘is dominated by the (physical) absence and present inactivity of the exalted Lord’. This is the exact opposite of what Luke is advocating in Acts. In what follows we will see that, according to Luke, Jesus is very much active: he is continuing to reign.

The ascended Lord Jesus reigns from heaven

Acts 1 sets the stage for the rest of Acts with a focus on ‘the day’ of the ascension of the Lord Jesus. In fact Luke ‘frames’ this chapter with references to Jesus’ ascension in the almost identical phrase ‘until the day he was taken up’ in 1:2 and again in 1:22. In between these verses we have, as noted above, another reference to Jesus’ ascension in 1:10–11, where Luke refers four times in the space of these two verses to the fact that Jesus is in ‘heaven’. The focus here is not on his ‘absence’ and consequent ‘inactivity’, but rather on the ‘place’ from which Jesus rules for the rest of Acts. The reason for the emphasis on this location here will be clarified in Acts 2:33–36, where this place is associated with Jesus’ supreme authority over all. Initial evidence for this rule is seen already towards the end of Acts 1 as well as in the following account of Pentecost.

In Acts 1:24–26 the believers choose two men who meet the qualifications for being a replacement apostle for Judas. Then, before they cast lots, they pray to the Lord who knows ‘everyone’s heart’ (1:24). Some have suggested that because the language of knowing hearts is used in Acts 15:8 to refer to the Father, this must be prayer to the Father too. However, the prayer here to ‘the Lord’ to show them which apostle he ‘has chosen’ is also identical to language used at the beginning of the chapter, where Luke tells us about the instruction Jesus gave to his apostles whom ‘he had chosen’. This opening and closing ‘frame’ in Acts 1 regarding the apostles ‘chosen’ by Jesus, and the ‘frame’ regarding ‘the day he was taken up’, together with the immediately preceding reference to ‘the Lord’ Jesus in this context (1:21), all indicate that ‘the Lord’ who is being prayed to in 1:24 is the Lord Jesus. Luke shows then that Jesus not only has such authority that he may be prayed to, but Jesus is also continuing to direct affairs from ‘heaven’. The Lord Jesus is still ruling over his people, choosing which disciple will join the ranks of the other eleven apostles he has chosen, and controlling the outcome of the lot to bring about this appointment.

The reigning Lord Jesus pours out the Spirit

Following the focus on ‘the day he was taken up’ in Acts 1, Acts 2 begins with a reference to the arrival of ‘the day of Pentecost’ (2:1). Furthermore, following the emphasis on the ascension of the Lord Jesus ‘into heaven’ (1:10–11), the mention in 2:2 of a sound coming ‘from heaven’ alerts us to the possibility that the Lord Jesus is continuing to act and that he is behind the events of Pentecost too. This is in fact what Peter argues in response to questions concerning the declaration of the wonders of God in a variety of languages. What this means, argues Peter, is that God’s promise to pour out the Holy Spirit in the last days has been fulfilled (2:16–17). The reason for this is that the promised Davidic King has come and has been raised for ever to sit on David’s throne (2:30–31). The use of ‘therefore’ (oun) in verse 33 (omitted in the NIV) shows that the pouring out of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost is evidence of the reign of the Lord Jesus from the throne of David. Here we need to note the parallelism in the words Peter uses in 2:17 (quoting Joel 2:28) and in 2:33:

2:17‘God says, I will pour out my Spirit’

2:33‘Exalted . . . he has received . . . and has poured out what you now see and hear’

Jesus is the Lord who sits ‘at the right hand’ of the Father, a position of power and authority and the place from which blessing and deliverance come for God’s people. Now he is the bestower of God’s blessing for God’s people, sending the Holy Spirit, God’s enabling presence for his people. Thus in Acts 16:7 the Holy Spirit (who is mentioned in 16:6) is referred to as ‘the Spirit of Jesus’. It is most likely that this phrase is used in the light of the declaration in 2:33 that the Lord Jesus received and poured out the Holy Spirit. In the light of Acts 2, therefore, this phrase, ‘the Spirit of Jesus’, highlights Jesus’ ‘lordship of the Spirit’ as he is the one who sent the Holy Spirit. As important as Pentecost is for the narrative of Acts, and as important as the Holy Spirit is for the transformation and enabling of God’s people in Acts, Luke shows in Acts 1 and 2 that it is the ascension of the Lord Jesus that is determinative for the events of the rest of the narrative of Acts. Luke’s opening of the narrative of Acts with reference to two ‘days’, the ‘day he was taken up into heaven’ and the ‘day of Pentecost’ when the Holy Spirit was poured out ‘from heaven’, are designed to show that it is the Lord Jesus who rules and directs affairs in this period of the kingdom of God.

The reigning Lord Jesus adds to the church

When we continue reading through the narrative of Acts, we find ongoing references to Jesus’ activity. In Acts 2:47 ‘the Lord added to their number daily those who were being saved’. In view of the overwhelming emphasis throughout Acts 2 that Jesus is ‘the Lord’ upon whom we must call (cf. 2:21 and 34–36), the ‘Lord’ at the end of Acts 2 who is adding believers to the church is Jesus who has been made ‘Lord and Christ’. Thus not only is the Lord Jesus the one who is responsible for the pouring out of the Holy Spirit and the events of Pentecost; he is the one who is adding believers to the number of those who are saved. Similarly, in 5:32 Peter and the apostles declare that he has been exalted to the right hand of God in order to give ‘repentance and forgiveness of sins to Israel’. Thus he is the one who not only grants forgiveness in response to repentance, but is even said to grant the required response of repentance itself.

We will break the narrative sequence here and come back to Acts 9 and Saul’s conversion below, where it will be placed in the context of the rest of Paul’s ministry in Acts. In Acts 11 – 12 the Lord Jesus is again highlighted as the one responsible for the growth of the church. Those scattered because of the persecution in Jerusalem began to tell ‘the good news about the Lord Jesus’ to Greeks as well as Jews (11:20). Then we read that ‘a great number of people believed and turned to the Lord’. The reason given for this large response is that ‘the Lord’s hand was with them’ (11:21). The references to the message about the ‘Lord Jesus’ and the number turning to ‘the Lord’, in this context indicate that ‘the Lord’ whose hand is with them is the Lord Jesus again. This is a crucial narrative setting, as we read not only of the introduction of Gentiles to the church following the major narrative focus on the conversion of Cornelius (and in keeping with what the Lord Jesus had said in 1:6–8), but also of the establishment of the church at Antioch, which will go on to become the next major sending church in the book of Acts (13:1 – 14:28). The Lord Jesus is here again continuing to rule according to his promise, enabling the disciples in their ministry and adding to the growth of the church.

When we come to Saul’s conversion in Acts 9 (and the references to this event again in Acts 22 and 26), we find that the greatest threat to the life of the church up to this point is not only stopped but turned around by none other than the Lord Jesus himself. The description of Saul in Acts 8:3 as one who is destroying the church and going from house to house and dragging off men and women to prison, and in 9:1 as still ‘breathing out murderous threats’, highlights the severity of this threat. The contrast, however, between his approach to the synagogues of Damascus in 9:2 in order to drag men and women off to prison and his activity in the synagogues of Damascus in 9:19–20 proclaiming that Jesus is the Son of God shows the power of the Lord Jesus not only to overcome this threat but to enlist Saul as his own most devoted follower. In the narrative of Acts 9 the persecutor of 9:1–2 becomes the bold proclaimer in 9:19–20, even under threat of persecution himself, and this is all due to the work of the Lord Jesus.

In 9:15–16 the rest of Paul’s ministry is outlined under the authority of the Lord Jesus. Paul’s ministry before the Gentiles and their kings and the people of Israel will be developed from Acts 13 through to the end of the book. This ministry is said to take place, however, because Paul is Jesus’ ‘chosen instrument’. It is as Jesus’ representative, bearing his name and suffering for his name, that Paul will minister, and it is Jesus himself who outlines the course of his ministry.

At a major turning point in the narrative of Acts (16:6–10) we find the directing activity of ‘the Spirit of Jesus’ as Paul crosses from ‘Asia to Europe’. After much is made of the prevention of Paul and his companions from preaching in the province of Asia and Bithynia at the border of Mysia, and the vision of a man from Macedonia urging them to come over to Macedonia, they conclude that ‘God had called us to preach the gospel’ to the Macedonians (16:10). It is significant, therefore, that in the very next incident in Philippi of Macedonia Lydia responds to Paul’s message, because ‘the Lord opened her heart’ (16:14). The immediately following statement that she is now a ‘believer in the Lord’ (16:15) indicates that ‘the Lord’ here is the Lord Jesus. Thus we see that following the directing activity of ‘the Spirit of Jesus’, the goal of ‘God’s call’ was the conversion of Lydia, whose heart the Lord Jesus himself opened.

It is in the light of the authority of the Lord Jesus over Paul’s ministry then that we read of reassurances given to Paul along the way that the Lord Jesus is continuing to guide his mission and Paul’s ministry. In 18:9–11, in the context of opposition, ‘the Lord’ speaks to Paul in a vision encouraging him not to be afraid and to keep on speaking, ‘for I am with you’. In view of Paul’s conversion and call to ministry in Acts 9 ‘the Lord’ here is the Lord Jesus. Paul’s ministry will not come to an end here (in Corinth) because, the Lord says, ‘I have many people in this city’. Here again the Lord Jesus is responsible for the outcome of and response to Paul’s ministry.

The final phase of Paul’s ministry in Acts is also carried out under the direction of the Lord Jesus. In 23:11, in the midst of opposition, Paul receives further reassurance from the Lord to ‘take courage’. The reason for this courage is the promise that ‘as you have testified about me in Jerusalem, so you must also testify in Rome’. The previous chapter, where Paul refers to his ‘testimony’ about Jesus in Jerusalem (22:18–19), indicates that ‘the Lord’ here is again the Lord Jesus. Thus the subsequent events where Paul is rescued from a plot to take his life (23:12–35), sent to Caesar in the midst of false charges and corrupt rulers (24:1 – 26:32), marvellously protected through storm, shipwreck and snakebite (27:1 – 28:10) and arrives safely in Rome (28:11–16) are all meant to be read in the light of this promise from the Lord Jesus in 23:11. It is under Jesus’ care and as his representative that Paul travels to Rome. Paul’s conversion and ministry may be made much of in the narrative of Acts. For Luke, however, this is all the more occasion for marvelling at the transforming power of the Lord Jesus.

Suffering: the fullness of the kingdom has yet to come

As Paul House has correctly observed, ‘Acts has no purpose, no plot, no structure, and no history without suffering. Therefore, proper interpretation of Acts depends in part on the commentator’s grasp of suffering’s importance in Acts.’ This is all the more important in view of the words of Paul and Barnabas to the believers in Acts 14:22, ‘We must go through many hardships to enter the kingdom of God.’ In the light of the emphasis in Acts on the continued accomplishment of God’s saving purposes through the risen and reigning Lord Jesus within the framework of the inaugurated kingdom of God, this verse is a significant statement about this interim period. The reference to the ‘kingdom of God’ here clearly has a future orientation; it has yet to be entered and there must (dei, ‘it is necessary’) be suffering beforehand. The Lord reigns and is accomplishing his saving purposes, yet his reign remains contested, the fullness of the kingdom is still ‘not yet’. The accomplishment of God’s saving purposes in this ‘not yet’ period of the kingdom therefore helps to explain why suffering is intimately related to two of the dominant themes of Acts: the spread of the word and the establishment and strengthening of local churches.

Suffering and the spread of the word

Luke punctuates his narrative at regular intervals with statements about the continued progress of the word, indicating that the spread of the word is a major theme in Acts. As Luke’s Gospel highlighted the journey of the Lord Jesus to Jerusalem, so Acts highlights the journey of the word about Jesus away from Jerusalem. The association of active verbs with the growth and spread of the word in the summary statements of Acts (cf. also Acts 20:32) together with the recurring descriptions of suffering and persecution experienced by the Christian community in the narrative of Acts indicate that this theme should not be understood as evidence for an ‘over-realized’ eschatology in a triumphalistic church. It is the word that grows ‘with power’ (Acts 19:20), often in the midst of the persecution of believers. The spread of the word, however, is not hindered by the persecution and suffering of believers. In fact, sometimes the persecution of believers is even the means for the continued spread of the word.

Suffering and the spread of the word in Jerusalem and beyond Jerusalem

Luke draws particular attention to the inability of those opposed to believers to stop the progress of the word. In Acts 4:4 Peter and John are placed in jail. In the very next verse, however, Luke states, ‘But many who heard the message [‘word’] believed, and the number of men grew to about five thousand’ (4:5). Similarly, in Acts 5:18 all the apostles are placed in jail. Once again Luke begins the very next verse with ‘but’. In this instance, he states, ‘But during the night an angel of the Lord opened the doors of the jail and brought them out’ (5:19). The reason for this miraculous escape was so that the apostles could ‘tell the people the full message of this new life’ (5:20). Likewise, in 5:40–41 the apostles are flogged and ordered not to speak in the name of Jesus. The very next verse, however, highlights the continued (‘day after day’) proclamation of the good news that the Christ is Jesus (5:42). Thus the summary statement in 6:7 concerning the spread of the word is a summary of this spread in Acts 3 – 7 in the midst of both internal threats and rising external opposition to the Christian community, which culminates in the death of Stephen.

The death of Stephen brings about the greatest persecution the church has faced to that point. So great is the persecution that ‘all except the apostles were scattered throughout Judea and Samaria’ (Acts 8:1). The description of Saul destroying the church and going from house to house dragging off men and women and putting them in prison (8:3) accentuates even further the severity of this opposition. Once again, however, in the very next verse Luke states that ‘those who had been scattered preached the word wherever they went’ (8:4). In this instance Luke is not only placing side-by-side statements about opposition and the inability of that opposition to stop the spread of the word (as he has done in 4:3–4; 5:18–20, 40–42); he is stating this time that the opposition was the very means for the continued spread of the word. This is picked up again in Acts 11:19–21, where Luke describes the spread of the word to Jews (11:19) and to Greeks (11:20), with the result that ‘a great number of people believed and turned to the Lord’ (11:21). This great number, as observed above, was due to the fact that ‘the Lord’s hand’ was with those who preached the word as they were scattered.

Suffering and Peter’s rescue

The accounts in Acts 12 of Peter’s escape from prison and Herod’s death dramatically highlight this theme of the inability of those opposed to God’s people to halt the spread of the word. The purpose of Acts 12 has been much debated and the ending of Acts 12 (vv. 20–23) has been a particular cause of difficulty due to its apparent disconnection from the account of Peter’s release. At least part of the reason for the inclusion of this chapter, however, lies in the contrast between Herod as a powerful ‘king’ in violent opposition to the Christian community, and ‘the Lord’ who is able to overcome this threat and enable the word to continue to spread. The whole account is framed with references to the kingship of Herod. The account opens with a description of Herod as ‘King Herod’ (hērōdēs ho basileus, 12:1). At the conclusion of the chapter Herod’s kingship is again emphasized (12:20–21) with references to the ‘servant of the king’ (tou basileōs), ‘the king’s country’ (apo tēs basilikēs), Herod’s ‘royal robes’ (esthēta basilikēn), and Herod’s ‘throne’ (kathisas epi tou bēmatos). His powerful opposition against the church is particularly stressed in verses 1–6: he acts violently against some in the church (v. 1), kills James the brother of John with the sword (v. 2), sees that this pleases the Jews and so proceeds to arrest Peter also (v. 3, with the implication that Peter’s life is also in danger) and has Peter placed in prison guarded by four squads of soldiers and bound with chains (vv. 4, 6). The reference to the earnest prayer of the church in verse 5 indicates, however, that one more powerful than Herod is able to be called upon.

Subsequent events do not encourage us to place confidence in the human participants in this account. Peter is portrayed as helpless, asleep when the rescue began, oblivious to the events of his rescue, and comes to his senses only when he is outside (vv. 6, 9, 11–12). Rhoda, although she is at least excited that Peter is out and recognizes Peter, nevertheless is not portrayed in the most flattering light as she leaves Peter (whose life is surely in danger) outside still knocking at the door (vv. 13–14). The believers (who, we are reminded in v. 12, were still praying for Peter) then hear that Peter is at the door and respond that Rhoda must be crazy! After further insistence from Rhoda, they conclude that it must be his angel instead. Finally, when they open the door and see Peter, they are astonished (v. 16). In this context this does not appear to be a release that has been brought about by the great faith of a praying church. What then is the emphasis of this account?

In spite of the great lengths ‘King’ Herod goes to in securing Peter in prison (12:4), ‘an angel of the Lord’ struck Peter on the side, woke him up, and led him out of the prison effortlessly (vv. 7–10). The agent of this deliverance, however, is further clarified throughout the narrative. In 12:11 Peter states that ‘the Lord’ (ho kyrios) had sent his angel to rescue him. Then in the concluding summary before Peter leaves, Luke declares simply that ‘the Lord’ (ho kyrios) had brought Peter out of prison (12:17). Thus the focus of the account of Peter’s rescue is on the power of ‘the Lord’ to overcome the violent opposition of ‘King Herod’. At the conclusion of the account in the midst of the emphasis on the ‘kingship’ of Herod noted above, Herod’s refusal to give praise to God leads to his downfall as ‘an angel of the Lord’ strikes again. This time it is Herod who is ‘struck’ down, and he dies (12:22). It is in this context of defeated opposition that another summary statement records the continued progress of the word (12:24). Despite the efforts of Herod the tyrant who opposed and persecuted the believers, ‘the word of God continued to increase and spread’ (12:24). Thus, although it is correct to see the description in 12:24 of the continued growth and increase of the word as one of the summary statements that contribute towards the portrait of the spread of the word in the face of opposition in Acts, it is the power of the Lord that enables the deliverance of his people, the defeat of opposition and the continued spread of the word.

Suffering and Paul’s ministry

As noted above, at the heart of Saul’s conversion and call is the statement from the Lord Jesus summarizing two aspects of his future ministry: he will both ‘bear’ the Lord’s name before Gentiles, kings and the people of Israel and ‘suffer’ for the Lord’s name (9:15–16). These twin features of Paul’s ministry are then immediately demonstrated in his preaching in Damascus (9:20–22) and Jerusalem (9:28) and also in the persecution he faces in Damascus (9:23–25) and Jerusalem (9:29–30). On numerous occasions throughout his ministry, persecution against Paul (like the persecution he himself inflicted on believers before his conversion, 8:3–4) was often the reason for his movement and continued ministry in other places (cf. 9:25, 30; 13:50; 14:6; cf. also 17:10, 14). On other occasions, however, Paul remained to proclaim the gospel in the face of persecution and opposition (cf. 14:2–3, 19–20; 20:22–24; 21:13). Either way, persecution and opposition continued to accompany, but not thwart, the spread of the word in Paul’s ministry as he faced opposition from Jew and Gentile alike.

The whole final section of Acts, which describes Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and defences before various audiences on his way to Rome, is also placed within the context of ongoing suffering and persecution. A preview of what is ahead is given in Paul’s speech to the Ephesian elders, where he declares that he is compelled to go to Jerusalem and that the Holy Spirit has warned him of continued persecution and hardships, but that he is determined to persevere in the task of ‘testifying to the gospel of God’s grace’ (20:22–24). This is confirmed by Agabus in 21:11 where Paul again affirms his commitment to persevere and even die for ‘the name of the Lord Jesus’ (21:13).

A suffering Saviour

The suffering of believers in Acts is, of course, consistent with the fact that they follow a suffering Saviour. A major feature of Luke and Acts is that the suffering of the Lord Jesus was integral to the accomplishment of God’s saving purposes. Thus, as observed above, it is regularly stated that ‘the Christ had to suffer’ (Luke 24:26, 46; Acts 3:18; 17:3; 26:23). Similarly, the Lord Jesus is regularly identified as the (suffering) ‘Servant’ of Isaiah (Acts 3:13, 18, 26; 4:27; 8:32–33). This pattern of suffering, where believers follow their Lord in experiencing rejection and suffering, is indicated by Luke in parallels between Jesus, Stephen and Paul. Thus, like Jesus, Stephen commits his spirit to the Lord and prays for the forgiveness of his attackers after his speech (7:59–60), and, like Jesus, Saul is told that he too ‘must suffer’ (dei, 9:16). When Paul arrives in Jerusalem, it looks very much like he will follow in Jesus’ footsteps as the repeated cries of the crowd ‘Away with him!’ (21:36) and ‘Rid the earth of him! He’s not fit to live!’ (22:22), which ‘frame’ Paul’s defence in Jerusalem, are much like the cries from the crowd against Jesus before his death in Jerusalem (Luke 23:18).

Suffering for some and deliverance for others

The sometimes contrasting outcomes for God’s people found side by side caution against simplistic answers concerning the reasons why in the book of Acts some suffer and others are delivered. In the same context as Peter’s miraculous escape from the power of King Herod we have an account of the death of James, the brother of John, who was ‘put to death with the sword’. Similarly, the Hellenistic Jews so opposed to Stephen that they stoned him to death in a fit of rage (6:9; 7:57–60) opposed Paul and tried to kill him in Jerusalem (9:29). Paul, however, managed to escape, as the believers found a way to send him off to Tarsus safely (9:30). It should also be noted that Luke writes of the spread of the gospel in the midst of a world where there is famine (11:27–30), injustice (24:27), storm (27:7–38) and shipwreck (27:39–44). Nevertheless, Luke’s emphasis on the spread of the word in the midst of opposition indicates that one of the ways in which he seeks to ‘reassure’ readers such as Theophilus concerning the things they have been taught (Luke 1:1–4) is to highlight the sobering truth concerning the inevitability of suffering in this ‘not yet’ phase of the kingdom. Although the kingdom has been inaugurated and the risen and ascended Lord Jesus is reigning at the right hand of the Father, nevertheless, in this interim period, before the Lord Jesus returns (Acts 1:11), ‘we must go through many hardships to enter the kingdom of God’ in its fullness (14:22). Believers may also be reassured, however, that despite opposition, the risen Lord Jesus is reigning and continuing to accomplish God’s saving purposes through the spread of the gospel to the nations.

Suffering and the strengthening of local churches

The statement in Acts 14:22 concerning suffering during this ‘interim’ period of the kingdom is also a significant pointer to another major theme in Acts. Just as the spread of the word in the midst of opposition is a major theme, so the strengthening and establishment of local churches to remain faithful in the midst of opposition is a major theme. This was the reason why Paul set out on the so-called second missionary journey in Acts 15:36: Paul said to Barnabas, ‘Let us go back and visit the brothers in all the towns where we preached the word of the Lord and see how they are doing.’ Thus, after Paul and Barnabas’ disagreement, Paul and Silas went through Syria and Cilicia ‘strengthening the churches’ (15:41). Likewise, the summary statement in 16:5 states that ‘the churches were strengthened in the faith and grew daily in numbers’. We will look at just three passages here due to their significance for this theme of strengthening churches in their narrative contexts: Acts 11:19–30; 14:21–23; and 20:17–38.

Strengthening the church in Antioch

Acts 11:19–30 focuses on both the growth and the establishment of the church in Antioch. This account is placed in the centre of a section that runs from the summary statement in 9:31 through to the summary statement in 12:24–25 and is therefore set between two sections that focus on Peter (i.e. God’s sovereign inclusion of the Gentiles through Peter in 9:32 – 11:18, and the Lord’s powerful rescue of Peter in 12:1–25). This new church arises through the spread of the word in the context of persecution (11:19); it is the first church in Acts where Jew and Gentile fellowship together (11:19– 20); it is where the disciples were first called Christians (11:26); and it will become the next major sending church in Acts (cf. Acts 13 – 14). In this significant section then, the growth of the church in Antioch is described three times in terms of its ‘great numbers’. In 11:21 ‘the Lord’s hand’ was with those who spread the word such that ‘a great number of people believed and turned to the Lord’. In 11:22–24 after Barnabas arrived from Jerusalem, he saw ‘evidence of the grace of God’ and ‘a great number of people were brought to the Lord’. In 11:25–26 Barnabas and Saul ‘taught great numbers of people’. Thus one of the themes of this account is that, although persecution brought the believers there, as a result of ‘the hand’ of the Lord Jesus, the word continued to grow and the church increased in numbers.

In addition to this emphasis on the growth of the church in numbers, however, this section particularly stresses the ‘establishment’ or ‘strengthening’ of the church in Antioch. Thus, in the light of Acts 4:36, Barnabas was sent from Jerusalem because he was ‘Mr Encouragement’. So, true to his name, when he saw evidence of God’s grace he was glad and ‘encouraged them’ (11:23). More specifically, in the context of persecution (11:19), ‘Mr Encouragement’ encouraged them in wholehearted perseverance ‘to remain true to the Lord with all their hearts’. Furthermore, Barnabas travels over a hundred miles to Tarsus so that Saul can help him in this task of nurturing this church. Thus the reference to Paul and Barnabas remaining in Antioch for ‘a whole year’ meeting with the church and teaching ‘great numbers of people’ is meant, in this context, to highlight a period of sustained strengthening (in contrast to the constant movement in 9:32 – 11:18 between Lydda, Joppa, Caesarea and Jerusalem). The establishment of the church in Antioch is complete in 11:29–30 when, after an emphasis on movement ‘to Antioch’ (11:19–20, 22b, 26–27), this narrative section concludes with movement from Antioch to Jerusalem. The church in Antioch is established such that it is now able to provide assistance to the believers in Jerusalem.

Strengthening the churches in Lystra, Iconium and Antioch

Before we look at Acts 14:21–23 and 20:17–38, it will help us to see the significance of these passages in the narrative of Acts better if we grasp the broad outline of this section as a whole. The next major section in Acts after Acts 12 is the ‘first missionary journey’ in Acts 13 – 14, followed by the Jerusalem Council in 15:1 – 16:5. Spencer helpfully lays out the general outline of this section:

13:1–3

Commission in Antioch

13:4 – 14:20

Ministry in Cyprus, Pisidia, Lycaonia

14:21–28

Nurturing the churches

15:1 – 16:5

Evaluation in Jerusalem

Given that Acts 15:1 – 16:5 is an examination of issues raised in Acts 13 – 14, it is best to group Acts 13:1 – 16:5 as one complete literary unit. At this point it is also helpful to note that Acts 16 – 21 follows a similar outline:

16:6–10

Commission in Troas

16:11 – 19:41

Ministry in Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, Corinth, Ephesus

20:1 – 21:14

Nurturing the churches

21:15–36

Evaluation in Jerusalem

This appears to be the best way to outline this major section of Acts because (1) it fits better than the commonly adopted ‘missionary journey’ outline of Acts, and (2) it fits better than the other commonly adopted outline for this section, which places a break at the summary statement in 19:20.

What is noticeable from these broad outlines for the second half of Acts is the repeated pattern towards the end of each section that emphasizes extensive nurturing of the churches. Thus in Acts 14:21, following ministry in Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe characterized by persecution and opposition, Paul and Barnabas ‘returned to Lystra, Iconium and Antioch’. Luke states that the aim of this ‘return’ in spite of the opposition they had faced in these cities is ‘strengthening the disciples’ and, similar to Barnabas in 11:23, ‘encouraging them to remain true to the faith’. It is in this context then, of strengthening the churches in the midst of opposition, that we find the one-sentence summary of what Paul and Barnabas said to encourage them to remain true to the faith: ‘We must go through many hardships to enter the kingdom of God’ (14:22). The implication is that the persecutions recounted in Acts 14 are not to be thought of as unique to Paul and Barnabas. Rather, this is part and parcel of the Christian life this side of the consummated kingdom. In addition to this sober assessment of the Christian life, Paul and Barnabas ‘appointed elders’ in each church. In this context of Paul and Barnabas’ travels from city to city, they provide these churches with stability for the future by appointing leaders who will stay and further contribute to the strengthening of these churches.

Strengthening the church in Ephesus

These themes of perseverance, faithful ministry in the face of persecution, strengthening the church, and the provision of elders to assist in this strengthening of the church become a major focus in Acts 20. In this climactic speech – the only lengthy record in Acts of a speech of Paul’s to Christians – Paul addresses Christian leaders. In looking back over his ministry, Paul summarizes it under the twin themes that characterized his commission in 9:15–16: (1) suffering for Christ’s name, and (2) bearing (or proclaiming) Christ’s name before Jews and Gentiles. Thus (1) he emphasizes his commitment to the comprehensive proclamation of God’s word with a range of terms for the activity of proclamation, a range of comprehensive descriptions of the content of that preaching, a reference to a variety of times and places for that proclamation, and a reference to the widespread audience to whom Paul proclaimed the gospel. (2) This commitment to the proclamation of God’s word, however, is expressed in the context of suffering and opposition as Paul looks back on his ministry (vv. 18–21) and also as he looks ahead to future ministry (vv. 22–24). Paul reminds the Ephesian elders of his pattern of ministry in the face of opposition as something they have already seen and ‘know’ (vv. 18, 20) because it is a model for their ministry of caring for the flock (cf. vv. 34–35). Thus when Paul moves to direct exhortation in verse 28, he urges the elders to ‘keep watch’ over themselves and the flock, to ‘be shepherds’ over the flock and to ‘be on your guard’ (v. 31) because of the severe dangers to the flock (vv. 29–30). Ultimately, however, Paul’s confidence is in God and ‘the word of his grace’. This is the same ‘word’ that ‘spread widely’ and ‘grew in power’, which gave rise to the church in Ephesus (Acts 19:20). It is this ‘word of his grace’ that Paul commits these elders to in order for them to be built up. This ‘word of grace’ is able to bring them safe through to their inheritance (v. 32) and therefore Paul appropriately concludes his time with these elders on his knees in prayer (v. 36).

The last section of this chapter has drawn attention to the integral nature of the theme of suffering and opposition to the themes of the spread of the word and the establishment and strengthening of local churches. In the light of the ‘framework’ Luke provides for this book concerning the continuing reign of the Lord Jesus in the inaugurated kingdom of God, and the significant statement concerning the strengthening of churches in the midst of suffering in anticipation of the final kingdom in Acts 14:22, it seems Luke intends readers to see the theme of suffering in Acts within this broad framework of the inaugurated kingdom of God. Luke wants readers such as Theophilus to be reassured concerning God’s saving purposes. Yes, God’s kingdom has been inaugurated. The Lord Jesus is continuing to reign at the right hand of the Father and is building his church through the spread of the word. Nevertheless, because the kingdom is still ‘not yet’ consummated, the spread of the word and the establishing of churches will take place in the midst of suffering. God’s people will be strengthened, therefore, with the awareness that suffering remains a part of the Christian life this side of the consummated kingdom, and through elders in the context of local churches who will faithfully proclaim and teach God’s word in the midst of suffering. It is this word, after all, that God in his grace uses to strengthen his people.

Conclusion

Luke is showing that the kingdom of God, inaugurated in the person of the Lord Jesus, is continuing to be administered through him. In this sense his book is about ‘the acts of the Lord Jesus’. The departure of the Lord Jesus does not mean the departure of the kingdom. In this period between the ‘now’ and the ‘not yet’ of the kingdom he is continuing to reign from the right hand of the Father, as seen in the pouring out of the Spirit and the spread of the good news about him. The suffering and opposition that believers continue to face is because the kingdom has ‘not yet’ come in fullness. Nevertheless, the word will continue to spread and in this ‘inaugurated kingdom’ God’s people are strengthened in the context of local churches. This ‘inaugurated kingdom’ then is still to be understood as the fulfilment of God’s saving promises and plan. God’s eschatological (kingdom) promises for his people are continuing to be fulfilled through the Lord Jesus. According to the OT, however, the end-time promises of blessing were closely associated with the resurrection. The resurrection of Jesus, therefore, is the subject of the next chapter.

Excursus: an expositional outline of Acts

As indicated above, my own analysis of the structure of Acts, particularly the second half of Acts, slightly differs from two other major approaches. On the one hand, many opt for a ‘Pauline Missionary Journey’ structure of Acts 13 – 21. This is commonly outlined in something like the following:

13:1 – 14:28

First missionary journey

15:1–35

Jerusalem Council

15:36 – 18:22

Second missionary journey

18:23 – 21:16

Third missionary journey

21:17 – 28:31

Trials of Paul and journey to Rome

The main difficulties with this approach are that (1) it tends to focus more on Paul than on the reign of the Lord Jesus and the purposes of God, which better capture Luke’s emphasis, (2) it tends to have more of a focus on a circular motion of Paul’s leaving from particular places and returning to particular places than on the continuing spread of the word moving further and further out, which the ‘summary statement’ outline (below) captures better, (3) more specifically, this structure does not do justice to the narrative flow at 15:36 and 18:22.

A second approach to outlining Acts focuses on the major summary statements that, as noted in the discussion above, are found throughout the narrative of Acts:

6:7

‘So the word of God spread. The number of disciples in Jerusalem increased rapidly, and a large number of priests became obedient to the faith.’

9:31

‘Then the church throughout Judea, Galilee and Samaria enjoyed a time of peace. It was strengthened; and encouraged by the Holy Spirit, it grew in numbers, living in the fear of the Lord.’

12:24

‘But the word of God continued to increase and spread.’

16:5

‘So the churches were strengthened in the faith and grew daily in numbers.’

19:20

‘In this way the word of the Lord spread widely and grew in power.’

Thus an outline that reflects these summary statements looks similar to the following:

1:1 – 2:41

Prologue: Foundations for the church and its mission

2:42 – 6:7

The church in Jerusalem

6:8 – 9:31

Wider horizons for the church: Stephen, Samaria and Saul

9:32 – 12:24

Peter and the first Gentile convert

12:25 – 16:5

Paul turns to the Gentiles

16:6 – 19:20

Further expansion into the Gentile world

19:21 – 28:31

To Jerusalem and then to Rome

This outline better reflects a literary approach which recognizes where Luke appears to pause and comment on the previous section (or the section he is in the middle of), it places the emphasis on the purposes of God and the spread of his word as marking off these sections, and this reflects Luke’s overall emphases in Acts better. A slight modification of the ‘summary statement’ outline of Acts, however, is needed. The main reasons for this ‘modified summary statement’ approach are primarily that (1) Acts 6:7 does not bring about a major shift from Jerusalem as is often reflected in these outlines; this shift comes after Acts 7. For reasons which chapter 5 of this book will develop, 6:1–7 is better seen as a transition to Acts 6 – 7, which brings a climax to themes that have been developing throughout Acts 3 – 5. Similarly (2), it is unlikely that Acts 19:20 should be taken as a major literary break in Acts 19. It is better to see this as a statement concerning the power of the word in the midst of the wider narrative focus on Ephesus in Acts 19 – 20. Thus, in keeping with Luke’s introduction in Acts 1 – 2 that the major theme of Acts is the reign of the Lord Jesus who enables the spread of the word, my own, very general, ‘expositional outline’ of Acts is as follows:

Acts 1:1 – 2:47

The reign of Christ the Lord and the Holy Spirit

Acts 3:1 – 8:3

The reign of Christ the Lord over rising opposition

Acts 8:4 – 9:31

The reign of Christ the Lord over outcasts and enemies

Acts 9:32 – 12:25

The reign of Christ the Lord over all nations

Acts 13:1 – 16:5

The reign of Christ the Lord proclaimed to the nations: part 1

Acts 16:6 – 21:36

The reign of Christ the Lord proclaimed to the nations: part 2

Acts 21:37 – 28:31

The reign of Christ the Lord vindicated before the rulers

↑ Back to top