both antonyms and synonyms. Synonymous words are those that
manners"; His revelation was progressive, and may have enriched the meaning of the words in the course of its development.
But, however difficult the task may be, this may not deter the interpreter. If necessary, he must make a thorough study of a word for himself. And the only way in which he can do it is by the inductive method. It will be incumbent on him (a) to ascertain, by the aid of Hebrew and Greek concordances, where the word is found; (b) to determine the meaning of the word in each one of the connections in which it occurs; and (c) to do this by means of internal rather than external helps. In the pursuance of such a study, the various significations of a word will gradually become apparent. The interpreter must beware, however, of hasty conclusions, and should never base his induction on only a part of the data at hand. Such inductive study may enable him (a) to determine whether a certain meaning, confidently ascribed to a word by the Lexicon, is indeed correct or (b) to obtain certainty respecting a signification that was represented as doubtful in the Lexicon; or (c) to discover a meaning that had never been ascribed to the word before.
The so-called hapax legomena constitute a special difficulty. These may be of two kinds, viz., (a) absolute, when a word is found but once in the whole range of known literature; and (b) relative, when there is only a single instance of its use in the Bible. The former are particularly perplexing for the interpreter. The origin of such words is often lost in obscurity, and their meaning can only be determined approximately, by means of the context in which they occur, and by the analogy of related words in the same or in other languages. Think of epiousios in Matt. 6:11; Luke 11:3; and of pistikos in Mark 14:3; John 12:3.
3. THE SYNONYMOUS USE OF WORDS. Every language contains both antonyms and synonyms. Synonymous words are those that have the same meaning, or agree in one or more of their meanings, though they may differ in others. They often agree in their fundamental signification, but give expression to different shades of
it. The use of synonyms ministers to the beauty of a language insofar as it enables an author to vary his expressions. Moreover, it enriches a language by making it capable of expressing more minutely the different shades and aspects of any particular idea.
The languages in which the Bible was written are also rich in synonyms and synonymous expressions. It is to be regretted that these were not retained in the translations to a greater extent. In some cases this was quite impossible, but in others it might have been done. But even though some of the finer distinctions were lost in translation, the interpreter may never lose sight of them. He must have an open eye for all the related ideas of the Bible, and be quick to notice what they have in common and wherein they differ. This is the sine qua non of a discriminating knowledge of the Biblical revelation.
Here, again, external helps may be employed, such as Girdlestone's Old Testament Synonyms, Kennedy's Hebrew Synonyms, Trench's New Testament Synonyms, and Cremer's Biblisch-Theologisches Wörterbuch. But these works are not exhaustive, and the possibility exists that their distinctions do not commend themselves to the interpreter. In such cases, he will have to make an inductive study for himself which is extremely difficult. In the Preface to the eighth edition of his work, Trench gives some valuable hints for the proper conduct of such an investigation.
The importance of noting carefully the exact meaning of synonymous words may be illustrated by a few examples. In Isa. 53:2, three words are used to express the absence of external glory in the life of the Servant of the Lord. We read there: "He hath no form nor comeliness; and when we see him, there is no beauty that we should desire him." (Am. Rev.) The first word (tho'ar) means "form," with the added idea of beauty, and therefore refers to a beautiful bodily form. Comp. 1 Sam. 16:18. The second (hadar) designates an ornament, and, as applied to God, is descriptive of majesty. It refers to the way in which the Lord appeared among men rather than to his physical form. He manifested himself in a state of humiliation. And
the third (mar'eh, from ra'ah, "to see"), sometimes refers to an external appearance which is the expression of and therefore in harmony with an inner essential being. The meaning of the prophet seems to be that the external appearance of the Lord was not such as the Jews expected of the Messiah.
The New Testament furnishes a beautiful example in John 21:15–17. When the risen Lord inquired into the love of fallen Peter, He employed two words, viz., agapao and phileo. The distinction between the two is given by Trench in the following words: "The first expresses a more reasoning attachment of choice and selection, from a seeing in the object upon which it is bestowed that which is worthy of regard; or else from a sense that such is due toward the person so regarded, as being a benefactor, or the like; while the second, without being necessarily an unreasoning attachment, does yet give less account of itself to itself; is more instinctive, is more of the feelings or natural affections, implies more passion." The former, based upon admiration and respect, is a love that is controlled by the will and of an enduring character; while the latter, based on affection, is a love that is more impulsive and apt to lose its fervor. Now, when the Lord first puts the question to Peter, "lovest thou me?" he used the first word, aqapao. But Peter did not dare to answer affirmatively to the question, whether he loved the Lord with a permanent love that achieves its greatest triumphs in moments of temptation. So in answering, he employs the second word, phileo. The Lord repeats the question, and Peter again gives answer in the same way. Then the Saviour descends to the level of Peter, and in his third question uses the second word, as if He doubted even the philein of Peter. No wonder that the latter became sorrowful, and made an appeal to the omniscience of the Lord.
These examples suffice to prove the great importance of the study of synonyms. An interesting field of study opens up for the interpreter here. But just because this study is so fascinating, it may also become dangerous. Synonymous words always have a general, as well as a special distinctive signification; and the expositor should not proceed
on the principle that, whenever such words are employed, their distinctive meaning should always be emphasized, for, if he does, he is liable to find himself entangled in all kinds of fanciful interpretations. The context in which a word is used, the predicates ascribed to it, and the adjuncts added to it, must determine whether a word is to be understood in a general or in a special sense. If two or more synonymous words or expressions are found in the same passage, it is generally safe to assume that their special signification requires attention.
EXERCISE: Study the following synonyms:
a. Old Testament: 'edhah and qahal, Lev. 4:13; chatta'th, 'avon, and pesha', Ps. 32:5; del and 'ebhyon, Prov. 14:31; gebher and 'adham, Jer. 17:5.
b. New Testament: de-esis, proseuche, and eucharistia, 1 Tim. 2:1; charis and eleos, 2 Tim. 1:2; sophia and phronesis, Eph. 1:8; morphe and schema, Phil. 2:7; mochthos and kopos, 1 Thess. 2:9.
LITERATURE: Fairbairn, Hermeneutical Manual, pp. 79–106; Terry, Biblical Hermeneutics, pp. 73–100; Dalman, The Words of Jesus; Deissmann, Biblical Studies; Girdlestone, Old Testament Synonyms; Kennedy, Hebrew Synonyms; Trench, New Testament Synonyms; Cremer, Biblisch-Theologisches Wörterbuch; the various Concordances and Lexicons.
B. The Meaning of the Words in their Connection—Usus Loquendi
In the study of the separate words, the most important question is not that of their etymological meaning, nor even that of the various significations which they gradually acquired. The essential point is that of their particular sense in the connection in which they occur. The interpreter must determine whether the words are used in their general or in one of their special significations, whether they are employed in a literal or in a figurative sense. The discussion of the