B. Epaphroditus To Come Now (2:25-30)
B. EPAPHRODITUS TO COME NOW (2:25-30)
25But I think it necessary to send back to you Epaphroditus, my brother, fellow worker and fellow soldier, who is also your messenger, whom you sent to take care of my needs. 26 For he longs1 for all of you and is distressed because you heard he was ill. Π Indeed he was ill, and almost died. But God had mercy on him, and not on him only but also on me, to spare me sorrow upon sorrow. ^Therefore I am all the more eager to send him, so that when you see him again you may be glad and I may have less anxiety. 29Welcome him in the Lord with great joy, and honor [people]2 like him, 30because he almost died for the work of Christ,3 risking his life4 to make up for the help you could not give me.
From his plans to hear about their affairs (now in response to this letter) and to come himself as soon as possible, Paul turns to the more immediate matter at hand — the return of Epaphroditus, who is also the bearer of the letter. Logically, this paragraph should precede the former: Epaphroditus now, Timothy and myself later. But Paul's logic is that of concern, not chronology. Most striking (for us) about the present paragraph is that it takes the form of commendation, the kind of thing that regularly appears in letters from the Greco-Roman period to "introduce" the bearer of the letter to the one(s) addressed.5 How much one should make of this is a debated question, raised primarily because Epaphroditus is so well known and because, besides explaining Epaphroditus' long absence and recent recovery, Paul also urges them to welcome him with honor.
The paragraph is in two parts (vv. 25-27; 28-30), both of which (a) begin on the same note (Paul's having sent Epaphroditus), (b) mention Epaphroditus as the Philippians' "minister to my needs," and (c) note that Epaphroditus's illness brought him very near to death. What is being explained in both parts are the reasons for sending Epaphroditus now, and not waiting for the outcome of Paul's trial. The first part gives the reason from Epaphroditus's perspective·, his own deep longing for the community back home in light of their knowing about his illness (v. 26). It begins with the fact of Paul's sending him, including a considerable elaboration of his relationship to Paul and his service to Paul on their behalf (v. 25). Having mentioned Epaphroditus's illness, Paul concludes with a note about the severity of the illness and the greatness of God's mercy (v. 27). Verses 28-30 then give the reason for sending him, now from the Philippians'perspective: their own joy in seeing him again which will lessen Paul's present sorrow to some degree (v. 28). He then concludes with the actual commendation (v. 29) and the reasons for it (v. 30) — that Epaphroditus risked his life to "fill up the vacancy of your absence" and thus "of your priestly service toward me."
But why such a commendation in this letter? Because of its length and his urging the community to receive him with joy, some have read this as indicative of the tension in the community, and that Epaphroditus was on one side of that tension,6 while others see it as a semi-veiled "apology" for sending Epaphroditus home "before he had finished his commission" of staying with Paul and ministering to his needs.7 But that is probably to read far too much into very little, both in this paragraph and in the whole letter. Nowhere does Paul hint that tension within the community amounts to open "division." Rather, what is lacking is a common purpose, which has led to some posturing, including (apparently) some disputing and unwillingness to serve one another in love. It is possible, therefore, that Paul is here "covering Epaphroditus's tracks" for him, since he was the obvious bearer of this unhappy news to Paul. But since nothing else in the letter suggests tension between the church and Paul, and since the letter pours forth with affection at every point, far more likely this profusion of commendation is part of that affection. Paul has received their gift from Epaphroditus (cf. 4:18); now in sending him back he commends him to them as one of their own, and in honoring Epaphroditus, Paul honors them. Thus rather than read ulterior motives into words of affection, we should take them at face value.8 Epaphroditus really has been full of concern for the "folks back home"; that he should have risked his life on their behalf is reason enough for Paul to urge them to receive him back with joy. That God has spared him so that he could come back at all is all the more reason for joy.
Many see this paragraph as paradigmatic as well, and given the role of every preceding narrative to this point, that may well be so again. If so, the paradigm here moves toward the "suffering" side of things in this letter. Epaphroditus models one who was ready to "risk his life," thus to suffer for the sake of Christ on behalf of others. What makes one think so in this case is the unique phrase "unto death" (v. 30), used elsewhere in Paul only in 2:8 to refer to Christ's death on the cross.
On the further issue raised by this paragraph, having to do with the place of Paul's imprisonment and the number of trips to and fro implied by what Paul says here, see the Introduction, pp. 36-37. See further on v. 26 for a suggestion as to how and when the church heard of his illness.
25 The "but" with which this paragraph begins contrasts what Paul will now say about Epaphroditus with what he has just said about Timothy's and his own coming. His "hoping" and "being confident in the Lord" did not indicate lack of certainty, but the necessary hesitation when speaking of future events of that kind. But now — and from the perspective of their reading the letter — he affirms, "I considered9 it necessary" to send Epaphroditus back home, probably as soon as he had recovered sufficiently to make the journey. The rest of the paragraph basically explains why it was "necessary"10 to do so, and in so doing Paul honors Epaphroditus before the community for his having risked his life on their and Paul's behalf.
That the concern is in part to honor Epaphroditus before them becomes clear by the word order of Paul's sentence. Having mentioned him by name,11 and before the infinitive "to send12 him to you," Paul offers no less than five epithets, three describing his relationship to Paul13 and two to the community, including the fact that he acted on their behalf regarding Paul. First, he is "my brother," the fundamental term of relationship within the believing community;14 he is to Paul what the rest of them are as well. Second, he is Paul's "co-worker," Paul's most common term for those who have labored with him in the gospel in some way,15 including Euodia and Syntyche and others in Philippi (4:3). But in this case, third, Paul further defines his role as co-worker with a military metaphor; he is also "my fellow soldier."16 Military imagery is not common in Paul; very likely it was evoked by the surroundings (the Praetorian Guard, 1:13), or by the fact that Roman Philippi originated as a military colony.17 With reference to Epaphroditus, the imagery is that of a wounded comrade-in-arms, who is being sent back home for rest. Since Epaphroditus was almost certainly present at the dictation of the letter, these words are spoken as much for his sake as for that of the community; but they are surely for the community's sake as well, to emphasize that their messenger in Paul's behalf is considered by him to be a fellow soldier for the sake the gospel.
Finally, Paul also designates him as "your messenger18 and minis-trant19 to my need." Epaphroditus thus served as an "apostle," one sent on behalf of the congregation to perform a given task.20 That task is then expressed with a metaphor from the sacrificial system: he "performed a priestly duty" on their behalf "for Paul's needs."21 This is the first certain mention of their gift to Paul, although as noted on 1:5, it was most likely included already in the phrase "participation with me in the gospel." It is moot whether it is also alluded to by the term "your sacrifice and ministry" in 2:17, although the sacerdotal language used there and here (as well as in 4:18) makes a strong case for such. In any case Paul's present point is clear; in a culture where prisoners were not cared for by the state, but whose "necessities" for life (especially food) had to be supplied by friends or relatives, this is no small thing that they have done. They have thus "offered priestly service" (to God, is implied) by their sending Epaphroditus with the gift necessary for him to sustain life in prison. This present word about Epaphroditus anticipates the full acknowledgment in 4:14-20.
26 The preceding clause concluded with the words "to send to you." Hard on the heels of those words Paul now offers his first explanation — from Epaphroditus' perspective — as to why it was necessary to send him now, and alone, not waiting for the outcome of the trial: "since he has been longing22 for all of you23 and has been distressed24 because you heard he had taken sick."25 The point of this clause is plain enough, and it is doubtful that there are hidden agenda. As their messenger and "ministrant" to Paul's needs, Epaphroditus was desirous to return home, partly because of his affection ("longing") for them26 and partly because he was deeply distressed for their sakes over their having heard about his illness but not about its happy resolution.27 Only those who have not had such experiences, when one has knowledge both of a sickness and its severity and where communication is not readily available, would ever read ulterior motives into this. Furthermore, such a view calls Paul's integrity into question, which borders on arrogance for those so far removed in time and place from the apostle.
This sentence has also been cause for many to doubt the Roman provenance of this letter, supposing that he took ill in Paul's company and that someone had to carry that news to Philippi (one trip) and another had to carry the news of their distress back to wherever Paul is imprisoned (another trip).28 The implication is that the distance between Philippi and Rome is much too great for such comings and goings.29 But that is a quite unnecessary, and unlikely, scenario to read into this sentence. Given that Epaphroditus was probably carrying a considerable sum of money, it is equally unlikely that he was traveling alone.30 The most promising scenario, therefore, is the one that sees him as having taken ill on the way to Rome, with one of his traveling companions returning to Philippi with that news (which is how Epaphroditus knew they knew), while another (or others) stayed with him as he continued on his way to Rome, even though doing so put his life at great risk (v. 30).31 This view is favored in particular by the way Paul phrases v. 30 (q.v.), that he had risked his life in order that he might fulfill his mission to Paul on behalf of Philippi.
27 With an emphatic "for indeed,"32 Paul goes on to bear witness, first, to the severe nature of the illness, and second, to the wideness of God's mercy — both to Epaphroditus and to himself. We have no way of knowing the nature of Epaphroditus's illness; what Paul underscores is how serious it really was, enough to bring him to death's door.33 The repetition of this motif in v. 30 further indicates its true seriousness.
But the other side of reality, which the Philippians would now be experiencing with his arrival, is that "God had mercy on him" —a clause probably read much too casually by those of us who have the benefits of modern medical science. Far fewer people in antiquity recovered from death's door. In saying "God had mercy on him," therefore, Paul probably does not mean simply that in God's good mercy Epaphroditus simply got better, but that God had a direct hand in it.34 Most likely his recovery was due to what elsewhere Paul calls "gifts of healings" (1 Cor 12:9, 28, 30).
In this case, however, there is no mention of a "gift of healing"; Paul's emphasis rests altogether on the mercy of God evidenced by Epaphroditus's recovery, which in turn does not so much stress generosity toward the undeserving — although that is always true as well — but the experience of mercy itself.35 This is made certain by the final addendum, "not on him only, but also on me, to spare me sorrow upon sorrow," a clause that once again presupposes his close relationship with this community. They know well Paul's affection for them; the concluding plaintive note simply underscores it.
We can only guess what Paul is referring to by the first level of "sorrow" upon which additional sorrow would have been piled;36 it probably picks up the recurring motif of suffering, of his continually being poured out as a drink offering (v. 17), especially in his present imprisonment.37 This little phrase should also be regularly kept in mind when in this letter we repeatedly hear Paul speak of rejoicing. Joy does not mean the absence of sorrow, but the capacity to rejoice in the midst of it. His gratitude in the present case is for mercy, that he has not had sorrow of this kind — the loss of a long-time and dear brother in the Lord — added to the sorrow he already knows.
As usual, therefore, Paul can hardly speak without reflecting on everything from its theological perspective. The God he serves is full of mercy, both in healing the sick and in sparing the heavy-laden from further sorrow.
28 With another "therefore" Paul returns to the opening words of v. 25, but now as a matter of fact, "I sent him." The qualifier "all the more eager"38 indicates that the "therefore" in this case, in contrast to v. 23, is not resumptive, but inferential. Thus Paul offers the reciprocal side of Epaphroditus' distress over their knowledge of his illness: "that you may see him again and rejoice." In 1:25 Paul suggested that his own coming would be for their progress, and thus for further joy, regarding the faith itself. Here their joy will be that gladsome, spontaneous delight in seeing their brother again, and especially in seeing him alive and well. But did Paul here intend "see him again and rejoice" or "see him and again rejoice," since the placement of "again" is perfectly ambiguous?39 Pauline usage clearly favors the latter, since this adverb almost always precedes the verb it modifies. Paul, therefore, probably intended that in seeing him they would "rejoice again," which is quite in keeping with the repetition of this imperative in the letter. On the other hand, one cannot be sure that this is how the Philippians would have understood it, since it also seems to go so naturally with the participle "seeing." In any case, Epaphroditus's return is to be a cause for renewing their joy.
Not only so. Just as he added a word of personal relief at the mercy of God in sparing Epaphroditus, so here Paul adds a similar word, "and I for my part may have less sorrow."40 Thus, their renewed joy, which was undoubtedly a cause for joy for Paul as well, is here expressed in terms of its opposite, and in response to "sorrow upon sorrow" in v. 27. Epaphroditus' return will thus lessen Paul's sorrow at the first level as well. That is, God's mercy on Epaphroditus meant that Paul was not given extra sorrow; his anticipation of their joy in seeing Epaphroditus again, and their concomitant relief from anxiety over him, will also have the effect of lessening Paul's ongoing grief (related to his imprisonment).
29 With another inferential "therefore" Paul comes at last to the "commendation" proper, expressed in this case by way of a compound imperative.41 Since Paul has sent him back for the triple reasons given (for Epaphroditus's, theirs, and Paul's sakes), "therefore," he concludes, "welcome him in the Lord with all joy"42 and "honor such people as he." Here is a troublesome word for some.43 Why should Paul have to "command" such a thing, if there were not trouble around the edges? But even to ask the question is to make far too much of the imperative, which is a standard feature of such "commendations" in Greco-Roman letters, not to mention in Paul himself.44 Having given the reasons for their welcoming him back with joy, Paul now concludes by urging them to do so. Thus, not all imperatives in Paul are "correcting" something that has gone wrong.
The first imperative, of course, repeats what he said in the preceding clause as to the purpose of his sending Epaphroditus back home. But it does so with the typical (for this letter especially) qualifier "in the Lord." The nuance of this phrase is again not easy to pin down; but most likely it is similar to Paul's "hope in the Lord" (v. 19) and "confidence in the Lord" (v. 24) in the preceding paragraph. Everything that believers do is "in the Lord" in some way or other. Here it probably reflects the fact that their common existence, theirs and Epaphroditus's, is predicated on the fact that together they are "in the Lord," meaning they belong to him.
The second imperative is also typical, that they hold "such people" in honor. Although this plural may indicate, as suggested above, that others are traveling with him and that in this final word they too are included, more likely this simply reflects a standard idiom. When Epaphroditus is held up for "honor"45 of this kind, at the same time he belongs to the larger category of "such people" who deserve esteem. Thus the two imperatives together indicate the kind of reception Epaphroditus deserves upon his return, the kind of esteem in which they should hold him for what he has done. Such honor is not drawing glory away from God, but is that properly given to one of God's own, who nearly "poured out his life" on behalf of a brother.
30 With a final causal clause, Paul repeats, but also elaborates, the two basic reasons given above for their esteeming Epaphroditus highly on his return home:46 first, because "he almost died47 for the work of Christ," which is then elaborated, "having risked48 his life to fill up49 the help you could not give me."
For the first of these see on v. 27. What is added here, which we could have guessed at but without certain evidence, is that his coming so close to death was the direct result of engaging in "the work of Christ." Ordinarily this language has to do with evangelism; but here that would seem to be only indirectly so. The grammar of the sentence indicates that it refers to Epaphroditus' bringing their gift to Paul in Rome; and since Paul's imprisonment is directly related to the "work of Christ," any gift brought to him by fellow believers in this way would be seen as participating in the gospel, as 1:5 suggests.
The next qualifier intensifies "he almost died for the work of Christ." What happened, Paul suggests, is that by his completing his mission in the midst of severe illness, Epaphroditus put his own life in jeopardy. At least that is what the grammar implies. The main clause says, "he almost died for the work of Christ," which is now modified by an aorist participle followed by a purpose clause, which goes with the participle, not the main clause. Thus, "he almost died for the sake of Christ, by having risked his life in order to complete . . . your service to me." The clear implication is that there is "a causal connexion between the bringing of the gift and the risking of his life."50 This is the phrase that gives credence to the view noted above (v. 26), that he most likely took ill en route to Rome, but pressed on anyway to fulfill his commitment to the church and Paul, and thus exposed himself to the very real possibility of death.
The final purpose clause gives the reason for Epaphroditus' so risking his life, while at the same time it offers the believers in Philippi their ultimate reason for holding him in high honor: he was willing to risk his life so that he might "make up for the help you could not give me." But it is doubtful whether Paul intended to sound quite so pejorative. This combination of the verb "make up for" and the noun "lacking"51 is used in a similar context in 1 Cor 16:17 to refer to "making up for the absence of the rest." That is almost surely the intent here. Thus, the clause begins, "he has made up for your lack" in the sense of "your absence." Paul's absence from Philippi has created a gap in his life, and Epaphroditus has filled that up to a degree. Having made that point, Paul then returns to the sacrificial imagery of v. 25. With a genitive qualifier he indicates that by the "lack" of their not being present, neither could they minister to his needs as they would have liked; but now Epaphroditus has done so in their behalf. As in v. 25 he expresses their gift to him through Epaphroditus in terms of "performing the duties of a priest" in his behalf Thus, very much in keeping with 4:10 he recognizes that their "lack" with regard to him was not in the willing but in the opportunity. The result is a clause very awkwardly stated, but whose sense goes something like this: "so that he might make up for your absence, and thus 'minister' to my needs as you have not had opportunity to do recently."
Thus Paul concludes this brief narrative of proposed travel plans. The narrative is full of warmth and pathos, victory and trepidation. His affection for the Philippians spills over to them through his expressions of affection for Epaphroditus, their "ministrant" to his human needs. At the same time the passage echoes with notes of gratitude and joy, gratitude to God for his mercy in healing a brother, joy renewed as they see him again. Paul hints at his sorrows, but does not elaborate; instead, the passage is full of affection and honor for one who dared to risk his life "for the work of Christ" in bringing him material aid. His ultimate concern is that the Philippians themselves appreciate Epaphroditus for what he has done in their behalf for Paul's sake. If he also thus serves as one who was willing to suffer for the sake of Christ, that note, while not played loudly, neither is played so softly that it cannot be heard. Thus, here is very personal material, which receives its theological moments because Paul seems incapable of doing anything otherwise.
A passage like this ought to serve as a constant reminder to all of us (scholar, pastor, student of the Bible) that the NT was written in the context of real people in a very real world. Biblical texts are too often the scholar's playground and the believer's rule book, without adequate appreciation for the truly human nature of these texts — texts written by one whose speech was ever informed by his theology, but who expressed that theology at a very personal and practical level. Without being maudlin or saccharine one may rightly note that Paul lived as a believer in a world surrounded by friends, that those friends brought him joy, and that the untimely death of such friends would have been for him immeasurable grief. Hence the sense of deep relief at the experience of God's mercy is worth noting. That Epaphroditus' illness was itself the direct result of his "risking his life" for the sake of the work of Christ is also worth noting, especially in a culture where taking risks is primarily related to "business ventures," rather than to genuinely personal risks related to one's love for Christ and for his people.
1. A number of MSS add the infinitive "to see" (X* A C D Iv i d 33 81 104 326 365 1175 2464 2495 pc sy bo). This is a secondary addition on all counts: (a) its omission would be nearly impossible to explain, whereas the addition can be accounted for on the analogy of 1 Thess 3:6; Rom 1:11; 2 Tim 1:4; (b) the text without ίδεΐν fits the mood of this letter; as with Paul in 1:8, Epaphroditus longs for them, which included "to see" them, but is not limited to such. Cf. Metzger, Textual Commentary, 613-14.
2. NIV, "men"; Gk. τους τοιούτους (= "such people").
3. As often happens with Paul's mention of Christ, especially in genitives like this, the name here has a tortured textual history. The alternatives are "Christ" (Ρ46 B D F G 6 1175 1739 1881 2464 Maj latt sa) and "Lord" (Χ Α Ρ Ψ 33 81 104 365 1241s pc syhbo); C omits it altogether (favored by Lightfoot, Kennedy, Plummer); 1985 and Chrysostom have "God." Not only is "Christ" better attested, but the phrase "work of the Lord" occurs elsewhere in Paul (1 Cor 15:58; 16:10), whereas "the work of Christ" is unique to this passage, hence the "more difficult" — and in this case surely the original — reading. The MajT (and D) add the article before "Christ," but that is not to designate him as "the Christ," but to conform to standard usage, since the article occurs with "work" (in genitive phrases, standard usage is for both or neither word to have the article). Cf. Metzger, Textual Commentary, 614.
4 In place of Paul's uncommon παραβολευσάμενος, the later MajT substituted παραβουλουσάμενος, reflected in the KJV's "not regarding his life."
5. In Paul's case see 1 Cor 16:15-18; 2 Cor 8:16-24; Rom 16:1-2; Col 4:7-9; Eph 6:21-22.
6. See, e.g., Mayer ("Paulus"), noted favorably by Silva (160 η. 98) and O'Brien (341).
7. This view can be traced to Michael, 118-19, who asserts (without evidence) that "it was the intention of the Philippians . . . that Epaphroditus should remain with the Apostle so long as he had need of him." This "twofold mission" view has gained popularity in recent years, allegedly supported by such language as άναγκαΐον (v. 26, "necessary"), σπουδαιοτέρως (v. 28, suggested to mean "hastily"), and the lack of a qualifier like "again" with "send" (see n. 12). The frequent flip side of this argument is that Epaphroditus himself had failed in his duty (due to "homesickness"). See, inter alia, Bonnard, Beare, Gnilka, Kent, Hawthorne, Silva, White (Body, 145), who use such language as "malingerer" (Kent), "he apparently failed in his mission" (Hawthorne), or "leaving his post" (White). But despite its many advocates, this view (of a "twofold mission") remains conjecture only, and an unlikely one at that, since it hangs on such thin threads (see esp. on the meaning of σπουδαιοτέρως below). What Paul does say, both here and in 4:14-19, implies otherwise (see nn. 12, 13, and 19). And in any case v. 29 (that they should hold in honor people like Epaphroditus) speaks strongly against the suggestion that he was derelict in his duty to Paul (cf. Gnilka, 163). On the impossibility of Rahtjen's view ("Three Letters," 169) that "Epaphroditus had already returned home and had been received with coolness if not with hostility," see n. 9 below.
8. Which among recent interpreters is an almost novel idea (see preceding n.). So intent are some on finding ulterior motives that they are quite ready to overthrow what Paul does say in favor of reading between the lines — or else make Epaphroditus out to be emotionally unstable (see esp. Martin, "nervous disorder"; Hawthorne, "emotional instability"). All of this fails to take the letter genre ("friendship") seriously. It is as though because so much in Paul's letters is polemical, one must read even friendship through polemical bifocals.
9. Gk. ήγησάμην; see on 2:3 and 6 (cf. 3:7-8). Along with επεμψα in v. 28, this is an epistolary aorist (present tense at the time of writing, but past from the perspective of the recipients), as the NIV has it. But it seems unnecessary in this case to translate it with the present tense, as though Paul's perspective were more significant than that of the Philippians. Rahtjen's view (n. 7) that Epaphroditus had already returned home, so that these are genuine aorists, is defeated altogether on the formal grounds that Paul's appeal in v. 29 to "welcome him with joy" belongs to a letter of commendation that accompanies its carrier (see Rom 16:2).
10. Gk. άναγκαϊον, which stands in the emphatic first position in Paul's sentence: άναγκαϊον δέ ήγησάμην. Some read this word as evidence for an apologetic stance to this paragraph; but that is to read far too much into a single word. It stands clearly in contrast to what he has just said about Timothy; what Paul is about to explain is why Epaphroditus has returned before the outcome of Paul's trial is known. He has just told them how they will learn of that; now he sets out to explain why he has determined (ήγησάμην) that Epaphroditus should not wait.
11. Gk. Έπαφρόδιτος, only here and in 4:18 in the NT. The name means "honored by Aphrodite," thus "comely," and was common among both Greeks and Romans (as "Venustus"). It is clear from the following description that a (potential) devotee of Aphrodite (assuming he was so named by his parents) has learned of real love through Christ. On the name itself, see J. R. Harris ("Epaphroditus"). Whether or not the name Epaphras was a shortened form of this name, there is no likelihood of any kind that this Epaphroditus and the Colossian Epaphras were the same person.
12. Gk. πέμψαι, which in this case is especially far removed from its verb. Michael (following Bengel, and followed by Martin and Hawthorne) makes the strange suggestion that this verb without a qualifier like "again" (or the compound αναπέμπω; cf. Phlm 12)implies that he "had not been sent on a brief and hurried mission, but rather with the intention that he should remain with the Apostle." But how so, one wonders, since he is going back under any view (cf. Buchanan, "Ephaphroditus' Sickness," 159; O'Brien, 333 n. 26). Besides, this kind of argument cuts both ways, since it is just as plausible that Paul uses αναπέμπω in Phlm 12 precisely because he was sending Onesimus back after "failure," and thus he should have used that verb here if the "double mission" view were to prevail. That the church had sent Epaphroditus on a "double mission" (see n. 7 above) is pure conjecture; what Paul actually says here and in 4:18 implies a single mission. In any case that is all that Paul explicitly refers to.
13. Some are enamored by what they see as an ascending order to the threefold, "brother, co-worker, fellow-soldier" (e.g., Lightfoot, Plummer, Hendriksen). While that may hold for the first item in contrast to the next two, it is more difficult to see such intent in the final two items. What is of greater significance is that Paul variously designates those whom he is sending with such epithets, usually two, but sometimes three: 1 Thess 3:2 ("brother and co-worker," of Timothy); 1 Cor 4:17 ("beloved child and faithful in the Lord," of Timothy); Rom 16:1 ("sister and servant," of Phoebe); Col 4:7 ("beloved brother, faithful servant, and fellow slave," of Tychicus); the latter is shortened in Eph 6:21 to "beloved brother and faithful servant." This phenomenon (esp. the after-the-fact usage in 1 Thess 3:2) should cause those who read ulterior motives into this passage (that Paul multiplies epithets for apologetic purposes) to have a moment's pause.
14. But cf. Ε. Ε. Ellis (Prophecy, 13-18), who argues that the usage in contexts like this one (cf. 4:21) implies a semi-technical usage that is yet another term for "coworker." One need not doubt that it sometimes borders on such; but one loses too much of significance if the "semantic range" of the word is narrowed (as Ellis tends to) to become the equivalent of "co-worker." The very fact that Paul compounds these designations so often (see preceding n.) argues for the opposite, namely that their semantic range does not sufficiently overlap for only one of them to be used.
15. Gk. συνεργόν; it is used variously of Timothy (1 Thess 3:2 [τον άδελφόν και συνεργόν, as here]; Rom 16:21); Apollos (1 Cor 3:9); Timothy, Silas, and the whole Corinthian church (2 Cor 1:24); Titus (2 Cor 8:23); Priscilla and Aquila (Rom 16:3); Urban (Rom 16:9); Philemon (Phlm 1); Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke (Phlm 24); Mark, Aristarchus, and Justus (Col 3:10-11).
16. Gk. συστρατιώτης; used elsewhere of Archippus of Colossae (Phlm 2). The military metaphor is used also of Timothy in 2 Tim 2:3 (cf. 1 Tim 1:18).
17. See the Introduction, pp. 25-26.
18. Gk. άπόστολος ("apostle"), the clear indication that this is first of all a functional term for Paul (cf. 2 Cor 8:23), before it is titular.
19. Gk. λειτουργός; on this word see on 2:17; cf. the noun λειτουργία in v. 30. In light of 2:17, 4:18, and Rom 15:16 one wonders how Collange could have persuaded himself of a pagan background to the usage here. The "double mission" view also seizes on this word as implying not just bringing the gift but "attendance" on the apostle as well. But the usage in v. 30 and the language of 4:18 imply quite the opposite, that it refers specifically to the "priestly service" of bringing the gift to Paul. Cf. Buchanan ("Epaphroditus' Sickness," 158-59).
20. For this usage see esp. J.-A. Biihner, EDNT, 1.145 (section 5).
21. Gk. της χρείας μου, a word frequently used for "the necessities of life." In this letter see 4:16 and 19 (cf. the discussion on 4:11-12). Again, this language scarcely favors the "double mission" view (see nn. 7 and 19); to the contrary the usage in 4:16 suggests the opposite, and when Paul wants to enlarge its semantic range he does so in 4:19 by adding πάσαν ("every").
22. Gk. έπιποθών ήν; on the use of the verb see on 1:8. This is a periphrastic imperfect; whether it can also function as an "epistolary aorist" (as the NIV, "he longs for you") is highly doubtful (see n. 9 above); and in any case, the imperfect implies, not surprisingly, that this has been going on for the past while. The suggestions that this word implies "homesickness" (as Plummer, Martin, Loh-Nida, Hawthorne, White) is psychologizing pure and simple; and in light of 1:8, it is bad psychologizing as well, since Paul's "affection" for the Philippians scarcely implied "homesickness."
23. On this emphasis in the letter see n. 41 on 1:1.
24. Gk. άδημονών, used of Jesus in the garden in Mark 14:33 and Matt 26:37. As with "longing" (n. 22), it is pure psychologizing to read "spiritual anguish" and "nervous disorder" (as, e.g., Martin, Hawthorne) into this word. Barth (88) also falls prey here: "what a very strange motive for the behaviour of a grown man!"
25. Gk. ήσθένησεν, which more often than its cognate noun άσθενεία is used to mean "be sick," or in the aorist "took sick," although the aorist may refer to the whole experience (= "was sick"; on this usage see Burton, Moods, 20).
26. On the textual variation that adds "to see," see n. 1, an addition that seems to miss Paul's point (contra Michael, who suggests that either way makes very little difference). Epaphroditus longs for them, out of affection and concern for them, precisely because they knew he was ill and did not know of its happy outcome — although a desire to see them as well does not lag very far behind.
27. Kennedy, 446, offers the doubtful suggestion that upon hearing of Epaphroditus' illness, the Philippians had written to Paul, to which our letter is now in response.
28. This is frequently asserted to be five; e.g., Collange (119 n. 2): "[1] the Philippians learn of Paul's imprisonment; [2] Epaphroditus is sent; [3] the Philippians hear of their envoy's illness; [4] he hears that his friends are worrying about him; [5] Epaphroditus is sent back." This is so full of conjecture that it is hard to believe it is taken as seriously as it is (see, e.g., Martin. 120-21, who in arguing that an alternative view cannot be proved, implies that this view is thereby proven). Under any view, nos. 3 and 4 should be combined; why, one wonders, would there be need of a full journey back to Paul and Epaphroditus for him to know that they were concerned about him? The implication of the text is clear; Epaphroditus knows they are aware of his illness but not its resolution. He would not need someone to tell him that that would cause anxiety at home! Nor would no. 1 require Paul's arrival in Rome before the Philippians could have known about it (although in this case nothing can be demonstrated one way or the other); the point is that five trips to and fro rests on conjecture pure and simple, not on anything that is explicitly said (or implied by what is said). So also Reicke ("Caesarea," 284), who notes that only nos. 2 and 3 are presupposed by what Paul actually says in the letter.
29. Collange is bold: "This paragraph takes for granted a considerable number of communications to-and-fro between Paul and Philippi which points rather to an Ephesian origin of the letter." In fact this paragraph is nearly irrelevant to that matter, since all questions about distance and the number of trips under any view is based on conjecture, not on what is actually said. If I find my reconstruction more plausible than that of Collange, it is because I think the grammar of v. 30 (see p. 283 and n. 50) moves in this direction, and in any case it seems to fit real life much better than his; but neither view can be proved. See the Introduction, pp. 36-37.
30. In this regard see 1 Cor 16:13 ("the men you approve to accompany your gift to Jerusalem"); 2 Cor 8:16-24, where three brothers are responsible for assisting with the Corinthians gift; 2 Cor 11:9 ("the brothers who came from Macedonia supplied what I needed"); and Acts 20:4, where Luke names the entourage finally responsible for carrying the gift from the Gentile churches to the poor in Jerusalem (cf. 24:17 for Luke's knowledge of the reason for the trip to Jerusalem). That neither Paul nor Luke regularly mentions those who accompany the leader of such a group is evidenced everywhere (e.g., in 2 Cor 8:16-24 the two who accompany Titus are not named, while the second one is not mentioned at all in the further reference in 12:18; cf. Acts 21 -26, where in 21:29 Luke mentions only "Trophimus the Ephesian" from among those enumerated in 20:4, because he is the catalyst of the uproar). To mention other than the leader(s) of such a group lies beyond the interests of the narrator.
31. This view was suggested as early as Conybeare and Howson {Life, 722); it has more recently been advocated by Mackay ("Further Thoughts," 169); Buchanan ("Epaphroditus' Sickness"); Caird, 129; Bruce, 96; Silva, 161. That Paul does not mention further companions is not a serious problem for this view (see preceding n.), esp. in light of Paul's calling Epaphroditus the church's "apostle." He was their official representative and carrier of the gift. That he should not mention others in this case means only that Epaphroditus's return is not an "official mission" from Paul, and that it was he who had taken ill.
32. Gk. και γάρ, only here in Philippians, but a combination that occurs frequently in Paul's letters where he is trying to persuade (e.g., 1 Thess 3:4: 4:10: 1 Cor 11:9; 12:13, 14; 14:8; etc.). The combination, as here, is usually both explanatory (γάρ) and intensive (καί), thus offering further, emphatic explanation of something that has preceded. "The xαί implies that the previous ήσθένησεν understates the case" (Lightfoot, 123).
33. Gk. παραπλήσιον θανάτφ (= "coming near to death"). The adjective (used adverbially here), which can also mean "near" in the sense of "similar to," occurs only here in the NT, where the original meaning (by derivation = coming alongside) obtains.
34. This, of course, cannot be demonstrated; but neither can it denied as some do (e.g., Plummer, Hendriksen). Nothing is at stake here, but in view of Paul's understanding of life in Christ as altogether predicated on life in the Spirit (see Fee, Presence), this seems to be a very natural way of understanding what lies behind this theological account of Epaphroditus's recovery.
35. A verb that in Paul occurs elsewhere (apart from Romans 9-11) chiefly in connection with his call to apostleship (see 1 Cor 7:26; 2 Cor 4:1; 1 Tim 1:13, 16); see Rom 12:8 for its singular usage at the horizontal level (people showing mercy to others).
36. Gk. λύπην έπί λύπην; cf. Isa 28:10 (θλΐψιν έπί θλΐψιν).
37. This is the most common view; Beare (98) suggests "sorrow at his critical illness," but he then has difficulty with the άλυπότερος in v. 28, a difficulty that is purely of his own making.
38. Gk. σπουδαιοτέρως, the comparative of σπουδαίως, which is found elsewhere in Paul only in 2 Tim 1:17. In keeping with the "apologetic" view of this paragraph (see n. 6), it is common to suggest (in some cases assert) that this probably means "the more hastily" (Beare adds, "somewhat prematurely"; cf. inter alia Michael, Collange, Kent, Hawthorne, Silva, O'Brien); but that is a suggestion predicated altogether on a prior view of the paragraph, not on Pauline usage. Nowhere else in Paul does this word group imply "haste" as over against "eagerness, earnestness, diligence." And in 2 Cor 8:17 he uses the comparative adjective precisely as he does the adverb here, in a sending context indicating the high degree of eagerness involved in getting Titus and the two brothers to Corinth.
39. Paul's Greek can easily be put into English: "in order that in seeing him again you may rejoice," which could be punctuated, "in seeing him again, you may rejoice" or "in seeing him. again you may rejoice." Interpreters are generally divided: the former is favored by, inter alia, Hendriksen, Collange, Hawthorne, Silva, and the KJV, NIV, NASB, REB, NRSV, NJB; the latter by Lightfoot, Meyer, Vincent, Plummer, Michael, Müller, Beare, Gnilka, Rienecker-Rogers, Loh-Nida, O'Brien, and the GNB and NAB.
40. Gk. άλυπότερος, comparative of άλυπος, occurring only here in the NT. The meaning advocated by BAGD ("free from anxiety") and followed by the NIV, NRSV, and NAB seems to be an invented meaning with no lexical basis whatever (the "be less concerned about you" of the NASB is impossible). The adjective is formed from λυπή ("sorrow, grief") and with the alpha-privative means simply to be without sorrow (or perhaps, trouble). But "anxiety" is not even in the purview of this word, at least not according to LSJ.
41. Cf. esp. Rom 16:1-2, "in order that you may welcome (προσδέξησθε, as here) her and assist her as she has need." What is missing in this case is the language of "commendation" itself, but that is because Epaphroditus is one of their own, in contrast to Phoebe's coming to Rome where she is not formerly known (except, probably, by Aquila and Priscilla).
42. Gk. μετά πάσης χαράς, which does not imply "every kind of," as Plummer would have it, but "with fullness of joy."
43. So, e.g., Kennedy (447), followed by others (see n. 6): "The πάσης χαράς and έντιμους surely point to some alienation on which we have no light." They do no such thing, of course, although it is a possibility.
44. See, e.g., 1 Cor 16:15 (of Stephanas), that the church should "submit" to such and "recognize" (= honor) such; cf. 2 Cor 8:24 (of Titus and his two companions). Cf. the imperative in 1 Thess 5:12-13, which some would read as implying tensions; but again that is to make much too case specific what are more likely general admonitions.
45. Gk. έντιμος, found only here in Paul; elsewhere in the NT with this same general sense only in Luke 14:8, where it has to do with rank, however, not personal qualities that elicit such honor. The use in 1 Pet 2:4, 6 is more purely adjectival (= "precious, valuable").
46. It is possible, of course, that this clause modifies both imperatives in v. 29; but in either case it most immediately qualifies the second one — and makes more sense doing so. The present sentence reiterates the reasons not for their joy (v. 29a), but for their holding him in honor (29b).
47. Gk. μέχρι θανάτου; cf. 2:8 (only in these two instances in Paul's letters). Although the nuance here is slightly different from that in 2:8, it is hard to imagine that in a basically aural culture they would not have heard the echo.
48. Gk. παραβολευσάμενος τη ψυχή, a word that occurs here for the first time in known literature. An inscription noted by Deissmann (Light, 88), which uses the participle in precisely this same way, indicates that Paul did not invent the word. It is most likely a term associated with gambling, which is now used metaphorically. Cf. Acts 13:26 (in James' letter), where it is said of Paul and Barnabas, άνθρώποις παραδεδωκόσι τάς ψυχάς, for which BAGD suggest, "men who risked their lives." Note also that when referring to one's "life" in this way, Paul (typically in Greek) uses ψυχή to reflect this sense. It was not Epaphroditus's "soul" that was at risk, but his present life on earth.
49. Gk. άναπληρώση; although this verb can mean "fulfill" or "complete," with the noun υστέρημα it means to "fill up, fill a gap, replace." For this usage in Paul, see esp. 1 Cor 16:17; cf. Gal 6:2.
50. Mackay, "Further Thoughts," 169. Cf. Caird (129), "The obvious interpretation of v. 30 is that he fell ill on the road and nearly killed himself by completing his journey while he was unfit to travel." Although this, too, is a slender thread on which to hang a hypothesis, at least it is the one linguistic-grammatical moment in the paragraph that actually favors one view over against another. The common assumption, and frequently emphatic assertion, that he fell ill while in Rome, is assumption only, without a shred of evidence from the text itself.
51. Gk. υστέρημα, which ordinarily means "deficiency" or "lack" of something. But in the present idiom the "lack" Paul experiences is that of his friends. On this usage see the discussion in Fee, First Corinthians, 832. For the more common usage see on 4:11 below.