Islam And Christianity 1
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY1
Emir Fethi Caner
During the season ten premiere of the hit reality show Amazing Race, a program that pits couples from vastly different backgrounds against one another in a race that literally spans the globe, viewers watched an interaction between two devout Muslims, Bilal and Sa'eed, and two cheerleaders, Kellie and Jamie. This interaction sadly, yet accurately, demonstrates the lack of knowledge most Americans have of Islam. When Kellie attempts to introduce herself to Bilal by offering to shake his hand, Bilal cordially refuses the gesture, acknowledging that he is a Muslim and that it is not proper for him to touch her. A few moments later Kellie quietly inquires to her partner, Jamie, “Do Muslims believe in Buddha?” Jamie curiously responds, “I don't know.”
The vacuity of general religious knowledge by this generation is arguably unparalleled in American history. Things are much different now than when Alexis de Tocqueville (1805—1859), the nineteenth-century French social scientist and political thinker, documented his travels throughout America in his classic Democracy in America. Indeed, one can say with some certainty that if he were to visit America today, he would not conclude regarding American religiosity as he did 175 years ago: “Men thus have an enormous interest in forming for themselves well-settled ideas about God, their soul, their general duties toward their Creator, and their fellow men.” In fact, this generation should also heed the stern and prophetic warning Tocqueville asserted a few paragraphs later regarding a religiously illiterate society:
When religion is destroyed among a people, doubt takes over the highest regions of the intellect, and it halfway paralyzes all the others. Everyone becomes used to having only confused and unstable notions about the matters that most interest his fellow men and himself; men defend their opinions badly or abandon them, and since they despair of being able, by themselves alone, to resolve the greatest problems that human fate presents, they are reduced in cowardly fashion to not give them any thought.2
The past two generations have grown up functionally illiterate in the realm of religion, and they mirror much of Tocqueville's above conclusion. With religion successfully removed from the public square, most Americans are either confused about religion or cower from any discussion of it. Most today are theologically bewildered and suffer from historical amnesia.
Evangelicals do not seem to have fared much better regarding a general knowledge of the major world religions. Since the onslaught of modernity within the United States, evangelicals, for the most part, have chosen to cocoon themselves into their own subculture, refusing to engage the culture at large in any intellectual or apologetic manner. Fearing that the mind of our children will be corrupted by perverted texts and ideas, the vast majority of evangelicals have created nothing less than our own virtual monasteries and index of prohibited books. Not only are Darwin, Freud, and Marx off-limits from our bookshelves; other religious texts such as the Qur'an, Talmud, and Analects of Confucius are forbidden as well.3 In the end we have mistaken engaging culture in conversation with converging with culture through compromise. In an attempt to secure theological purity, we have instead secluded theological persuasion.
But 9/11 has changed our world, forcing Americans and American Christians to engage and understand Islam, a cradle-to-the-grave religion which does not divorce any aspect of life from its foundational roots in the Islamic faith. In the aftermath of the attacks, television personalities such as Dan Rather became pseudo-theological experts on Islam. Instantly, Americans sought out familiar voices such as Oprah Winfrey, arguably the most powerful voice of pop religion in America. The cultural chatter became nearly deafening for a few months, but thereafter many Americans went back into religious hibernation, once again immersing themselves into the self-help religion that has become American Christianity.4
Thankfully, a segment of Christianity, albeit small by most standards, is emerging which wishes to engage Islam, its theology and history. A plethora of books has been published which illustrate a varied landscape of how to view the second largest faith in the world. Among traditional evangelicals, illustrated by books such as Answering Islam by Norman Geisler and Abdul Saleeb, biblical apologetics and argumentation take center stage in the discussion. Theological distinctives are emphasized, and Islam is recognized as a repudiation of Christianity.5 Yet neo-Evangelicals, represented at least in part by J. Dudley Woodberry, highlight the similarities between the two faiths such as supposedly worshipping the same god.6
We have thus come to a theological crossroads. Will we go the route of traditional Christianity, which has rejected Islam as a false religion and emphasizes the role of apologetics in defending our faith? Or shall we take the road of progressive Christianity, which attempts to affirm certain truths within Islam, find common ground between the two faiths, and reject the role of all but soft apologetics?7 The author's central premise is clear: We cannot have an authentic witness to the world without having an authentic apologetic of Christianity. Hence, the use of reasonable apologetics and biblical distinctives cannot be sacrificed at the altar of political correctness and cultural contextualization.
Two Preliminary Misconceptions About Christianity
Imagine if your view of Christianity was dependent upon mainstream media outlets, Islamic media, or televangelists. For many Muslims the portrait that is drawn of Christianity comes from Islamic television networks such as Al-Jazeera, American television shows like The Gilmore Girls or The Simpsons, and from the prosperity preachers of our day.8 Moreover, the Qur'an, the holiest book of Islam, misunderstands key tenets of the Christian faith such as the Trinity. Thus, Christians must recognize how they are viewed by Muslims across the world.
First, the majority of Muslims believe that all Americans are Christians. Indeed, America is seen as a Christian nation; and, consequently, the woes of America are blamed on Christians. Freedom, to a traditional Muslim, results in perversion and licentiousness and is therefore inferior to Shari'a law, the Islamic law code which finds its basis in the Qur'an and the Hadith. The basis for freedom is Christianity, which Muslims perceive to argue that one can do whatever one wants as long as he says the words of salvation.
Second, all Christians are Catholic. Though some Muslims may realize the divide between Catholics, Orthodox, Protestants, and Evangelicals, many merely see all Christians as followers of the Pope. Furthermore, Christians are thought to worship Mary, a perception that finds credence in the Qur'an. In surah 5:116, Allah supposedly asks Jesus this question: “Did you say unto men, ‘Take me and my mother for two gods beside Allah’?”9 This misconception is further resolved through Catholic reverence to Mary as well as the Eastern Orthodox belief in Mary as the “Mother of God” (Gk., theotokos).10
A Christian Quadrivium:
Understanding Four Key Doctrines in Islamic Apologetics
During the emergence of the university in Europe, educators emphasized the importance of building upon the foundation of the seven liberal arts first popularized by the Romans. First, the student was required to study the Trivium, a curriculum in the arts which consisted of grammar, rhetoric, and logic. He was obliged to master these elementary studies before moving on to the next course of study known as the Quadrivium, which included arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. The latter, the equivalent of a master's degree today, prepared the student for study in philosophy and theology.11
When entering the arena of Islamic apologetics, the Christian similarly must master four crucial doctrines—a Christian Quadrivium—fortifying the distinctive nature of Christian doctrine in comparison to Islam. The course of study the author proposes includes theology proper (doctrine of God), Christology (doctrine of Christ), soteriology (doctrine of salvation), and epistemology (the study of knowledge with particular reference to the doctrine of revelation). If these doctrines are not astutely discerned, the Christian will either walk the path of theological compromise or the path of theological confusion.
Theology Proper: Discerning the Doctrine of God
And Elijah came to all the people, and said, “How long will you falter between two opinions? If the LORD is God, follow Him; but if Baal, follow him.” But the people answered him not a word.
1 Kings 18:21 NKJV
Simply put, the God of Muhammad is not the Father of Jesus. The subject in its essence is not a linguistic issue but a theological matter with eternal ramifications. To say that since Allah is Arabic for God and YHWH is Hebrew for God, Christians and Muslims worship the same God is beyond naive; it is blasphemous. When Elijah challenged his fellow Jews to follow the one true God, he did so without regard to linguistics. In the verse cited above, Elijah reprimands his kinsmen for committing idolatry. Yet the etymology of Baal is derived from the root word for lord or master. If the matter at hand were only about words, Elijah's statement would make absolutely no sense.12 Would the Israelites not be worshipping the same god as their forefathers since they have a title similar to that of their forefathers? Would Elijah not owe an unqualified apology to the prophets of Baal for assuming their worship was inadequate and their god nonexistent?13
This is not an argument which denies that God is sovereign over Muhammad and all followers of Islam. But as Timothy George noted in a Christianity Today article:
Muslim theology rejects the divinity of Christ and the personhood of the Holy Spirit—both essential components of the Christian understanding of God. No devout Muslim can call the God of Muhammad “Father,” for this, to their mind, would compromise divine transcendence. But no faithful Christian can refuse to confess, with joy and confidence, “I believe in God the Father … Almighty!” Apart from the Incarnation and the Trinity, it is possible to know that God is, but not who God is.14
Popular Muslim apologetics acknowledge the difficulties in saying Christians and Muslims worship the same God. In a recent abrasive editorial in the PakTribune, Ahmer Muzammil, after attempting to prove his respect for Jesus, asserted:
The haters can spew venom but as far as I am concerned, I believe that whoever believes in one Allah (GOD) without any partners, sons, daughters or incarnations, whether they are Christians, Jews, Muslims or whoever they might be, they all believe in the same Allah (GOD) that we do and that Jesus, Moses, Adam, Noah and Mohammad called masses to the same GOD.15
Like the traditional Christian who points to the doctrine of Christ's divinity as nonnegotiable, the traditional Muslim concedes that no one is permitted to partner anyone (or anything) with God and still be considered to worship the God of Islam. Furthermore, Muzammil, following the revisionist history of the Qur'an, claims that Jesus, Noah, and others were worshippers of Allah, not the Christian God.
The Qur'an further substantiates the claim that Christians do not worship the same God as Muslims. Surah 5:72 denounces partnering “other gods with Allah,” and warns those who do so, “Allah will forbid him the Garden, and the Fire will be his abode.” Surah 112 divorces Allah from the Christian God, explaining:
Say: He is Allah
The One and Only,
Allah, the Eternal, Absolute;
He begets not,
Nor is He begotten;
And there is none
Like unto Him.
Finally, surah 4:116 poignantly concludes, “Allah forgives not (the sin of) joining other gods with Him.” Commenting on this verse, noted Islamic commentator Yusuf Ali maintains:
Just as in an earthly kingdom the worst crime is that of treason, as it cuts at the very existence of the State, so in the spiritual kingdom, the unforgivable sin is that of contumacious treason against Allah by putting up Allah's creatures in rivalry against Him. This is rebellion against the essence and source of spiritual Life. It is what Plato would call the “lie of the soul.” But even here, if the rebellion is through ignorance, and is followed by sincere repentance and amendment, Allah's Mercy is always open.16
Ali's implication is that Peter, for example, committed this heinous sin when he publicly proclaimed, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God” (Matt 16:16). The church itself is built on this confession of faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, indeed, in the very character of Jesus Christ as the Son of God. To remove Him from the Godhead would be the death knell of the church, the end of Christianity. “For no other foundation can anyone lay than that which is laid, which is Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 3:11 NKJV). Ultimately, Muslims reject the fatherhood of God, the deity of Christ, and the person of the Holy Spirit. The triune God is replaced by a figment of Muhammad's imagination, a god that is beyond the characteristics of monotheism and transcendence resembles only remotely the God of the Scriptures.
Christology: Discerning the Person and Work of Christ
Let this mind be in you which was also in Christ Jesus, who, being in the form of God, did not consider it robbery to be equal with God, but made Himself of no reputation, taking the form of a bondservant, and coming in the likeness of men. And being found in appearance as a man, He humbled Himself and became obedient to the point of death, even the death of the cross.
Philippians 2:5-8 NKJV17
Muslims are quick to point out that they have a great respect for Jesus and that no one can rightly be called a Muslim who does not honor Christ. Yet Muslims, like all other people, must realize that one cannot merely respect Jesus; one either worships Him or rejects Him. Jesus, pointing out His eternality in stating, “Before Abraham was,” (John 8:58a), identifies Himself as “I AM,” the term for the sacred name of God Himself, YHWH (Exod 3:14).18 Jesus not only uttered the unutterable word YHWH, but He ascribed it to Himself on the temple grounds. The Jews then picked up stones, a logical response for someone charged with blasphemy. Commenting on this passage with regards to Muslims, Erwin Lutzer, in Christ among Other Gods, stated:
The divinity of Christ sharply divides Christianity from all of the other religions of the world. This is the great divide, the unbridgeable chasm, a gulf that extends from here to eternity. If it is false, it is worthy of great tribulation and a curse; if it is true, it is the best news—perhaps the only really good news—available on planet earth.19
The Qur'an identifies Jesus with many of the same terms Christians use, but these words are given vastly different definitions than those found in the Bible. Jesus is said to be the “Word” (surah 3:45), meaning He simply communicated the work of Allah. Jesus is viewed as “Messiah” (surah 9:30—31), referring to Him as an anointed prophet empowered to proclaim Allah's truth. Furthermore, Muslims believe Jesus was born of a virgin (surah 3:47)20 and performed many miracles including raising people from the dead (surah 3:49).21
However, Jesus is declared to be fully man, a “messenger” (surah 5:75) who adamantly refuses any form of worship (surah 5:77). Moreover, He was created from dust (surah 3:59) and was not ordained to die the cruel death of the cross (surah 4:157).22 Paramount is this diversion from Christianity, as the Qur'an articulates:
That they said (in boast), “We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah”; but they killed him not, nor crucified him. Only a likeness of that was shown to them. And those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge. But only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not: Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise (surah 4:157-158).23
Though Muslims believe the end of Jesus' life remains a mystery, it is certainly legitimate to ask what happened on that Friday of the crucifixion. Who replaced Christ? When was He replaced?24 Were the disciples deceived by Allah on purpose? Did the mother of Christ not recognize that her Son was not removed from the punishment of the cross? Did Allah leave her to weep for her Son even though He had not died in such a criminal manner?25 Who cried out on the cross, “It is finished!” and why was He allowed to deceive the people that they were no longer left in their sin?26
Ultimately, Muslims believe that Jesus is coming back. Surah 43:61 stipulates, “And (Jesus) shall be a sign (for the coming of) the Hour (of Judgment): Therefore have no doubt about the (Hour), but follow you Me: this is a Straight Way.” The main purpose of Jesus' return is to prepare the way for universal acceptance of Islam and thereby bring peace to the earth. Though Muslim theologians disagree here, many believe the verse which states, “The People of the Book but must believe in Him before his death,” (surah 4:159) elucidates the fact that Christians will revert to the one true path of Islam at Christ's return. Other traditions note that Jesus will descend to the earth, instruct others on the Qur'an and Hadith, lead people in prayer, bring peace and prosperity, end the use of unclean animals, and remove idolatrous images including crosses.27
Thus, Christians must be prepared to discuss the person and work of Christ on the cross as well as the imminent return of Christ. Christ is the soon-coming King who will indeed bring peace and prosperity while also establishing His kingdom on Earth. He brings with Him rewards for the righteous and judgment for the wicked. The power of this certain promise is described well by Charles Haddon Spurgeon (1834-1892), who wrote:
Beloved, we must preach the coming of the Lord, and preach it more than we have done; because it is the driving power of the Gospel. Too many have kept back these truths, and thus the bone has been taken out of the arm of the Gospel. Its point has been broken; its edge has been blunted. The doctrine of judgment to come is the power by which men are to be aroused. There is another life, the Lord will come a second time, judgment will arrive, and the wrath of God will be revealed. Where this is not preached, I am bold to say, the Gospel is not preached.28
Soteriology: Discerning the Doctrine of Salvation
But these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in His name.
John 20:31
The centrality of salvation in Islam is found in its first pillar, the creed (shahada) which states, “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah” (surah 47:19; 48:29). Indeed, it is the faithful recitation of this statement by a non-Muslim which then converts him to Islam.29
It can be persuasively argued that Islam demands more work to gain heaven than all of the other major religions in the world. Consider the strenuous obedience that is required of a Muslim even to hope to obtain Paradise. He must recite the creed of Islam thousands of times throughout his life. He must pray (salat) five times a day, hoping that Allah will see his faithfulness and give him mercy (surah 2:3—4; 20:14—15). These prayers must be preceded by ablution, a ritual of cleansing the head, hands, mouth, nostrils, ears, face, forearms, and feet. Without such cleansing, Allah will not hear the prayers uttered by Muslim believers (Bukari Hadith 3.57).
Furthermore, Muslims are required to give 2.5 percent of their income to the poor and destitute (zakat), a demonstration of care for the community as well as a renunciation of greed (surah 2:277).30 The consequences of withholding the almsgiving will inevitably be hell (Bukhari 2.498). Fasting (sawm), the fourth pillar of Islam, is mandatory throughout the lifetime of a Muslim (surah 2:183). Honoring the month in which Muhammad received his first revelations from Allah, Muslims, from sunrise to sunset, replace daily activities such as eating and drinking with the reading of the Qur'an and worship. Finally, the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj), the fifth pillar, is in many ways the climax of the Muslim faith. Each year three million Muslims converge upon Islam's holiest sites in Mecca to celebrate the oneness of Allah. The ritual is meticulously planned as pilgrims follow specific stages beginning with circling the Ka'aba, a building which holds the black stone that Muslims believe was built by Abraham and Ishmael. Other parts of the pilgrimage include running seven times between two hills of Mecca reenacting Hagar's frantic search for water for her son Ishmael, traveling thirteen miles to the plains of Arafat to honor the place of Muhammad's last sermon, throwing stones at the devil, and sacrificing an animal in remembrance of a ram offered in place of Ishmael.
Yet all of the laborious exercise cannot give any guarantee of heaven. The Muslim believes that he will stand before Allah one day and that his works will be weighed accordingly. “Those whose balance (of good deeds) is heavy, they will be successful. But those whose balance is light, will be those who have lost their souls; in hell will they abide” (surah 23:101—102). Since salvation is based on his actions, a Muslim cannot know his fate until he is finished working, that is, when he is dead. Additionally, the underlying element of fatalism increases doubt since “Allah leads astray those whom He pleases and guides whom He pleases” (surah 14:4).31 Ultimately, the more work that is required of someone to obtain heaven, the more hopeless heaven becomes.32
Hence, it is imperative that a Christian explain clearly the finished work of Christ on the cross and stand firmly on the exclusivity of the gospel of Christ (John 14:6; Acts 4:12). For someone who is wrapped up in the futility of a works-based salvation, the words of Christ on the cross, “It is finished!” (John 19:30), can be an oasis of hope and a balm of healing.
But Muslims have legitimate questions which must be answered including, How can another man die for me? And isn't salvation too easy in Christianity? These questions are intimately related to the atonement of Jesus Christ. On the one hand, Christians must point out the necessity of the atonement of Christ for forgiveness of sin (Heb 9:22). The cross of Christ reminds us of a God who is both loving and just. Both of these attributes are seen in that God sent His Son to pay the penalty of sin on our behalf (John 3:16). In Islam, Allah's justice is at best questionable since he allows those into heaven whose sins remain unpunished. Islamic justice is akin to a judge who allows a murderer to go free by allowing other works to rectify the crime. Though perhaps a murderer, punishment does not seem necessary since he may have been a good father, a good husband, or just a good person. Additionally, although guilty of multiple heinous acts, the criminal is not merely given a pass but is rewarded with the greatest benefits the judge can bestow upon him. So is the case in Islam when the Muslim is given Paradise even though his life is weighed down with sin and guilt. Only in Christianity are all sins paid for—either by each individual at the judgment (Rev 20:11—15) or by Christ on the cross (Matt 26:46).
The latter question raised by Muslims is answered by recognizing the cruel death of Christ and the daily death of the believer to self. Salvation, so rich and free, is nonetheless costly to our Savior, who has transformed the Christian in order that we may be conformed to His image (Rom 12:1-2; Phil 2:5). Unfortunately, the idea of surrender to Christ is foreign to the vocabulary of many professing Christians and, thus, absent from their witness in front of an unbelieving world.
Due to a works-based salvation, two concepts elude the Muslim mind: unconditional love and eternal security. The Muslim believes that Allah loves him only if he is obedient (surah 2:190). Once again our answer lies within the atonement: “But God demonstrates His own love toward us, in that while we were still sinners, Christ died for us” (Rom 5:8). This unconditional love is based on the fatherhood of God, the relational portrait of a caring father who wishes only the best for His children. Like the wayward son in the Gospel of Luke (15:11—32), our Father promises that “all that I have is yours” (Luke 15:31) because of our relationship with Him, not because of our actions against Him. Indeed, He, our Father, promises, “I will never leave you nor forsake you” (Heb 13:5). Both God the Father and God the Son promise that no one can separate believers from their God (John 10:28-29). Believers in Jesus Christ, the Son of God, will never be orphans but, by the grace of God, will be glorified by God in due time (Rom 8:28-30).
Epistemology: Basing Our Beliefs on the Revelation of God
Then He said to them, “O foolish ones, and slow of heart to believe in all that the prophets have spoken! Ought not the Christ to have suffered these things and to enter into His glory?” And beginning at Moses and all the Prophets, He expounded to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning Himself.
Luke 24:25-27 NKJV
Ultimately, the question of epistemology—how do you know what you know?—comes down to a question of which source you trust. For those considering Christianity or Islam, there are only three choices: (1) The Bible is the Word of God; (2) the Qur'an is the Word of God; or (3) neither is the Word of God.33 To the Muslim the Qur'an is the indestructible Word of God. The Qur'an itself states, “We have, without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will assuredly guard it (from corruption)” (surah 15:9). Although no miracles are attributed to Muhammad in the Qur'an (surah 3:183) and the Qur'an itself does not have predictive prophecy,34 Muslims quickly assert that the Qur'an itself is a miracle due to its beauty and unique style.35 To the Muslim the Qur'an is the dictated words of Allah given to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. On the other hand, orthodox Christians hold to the plenary (full) verbal inspiration of the Bible; that is, the very words, letters, and syllables are inspired (Matt 5:17-18), and it is entirely without error in its contents (2 Tim 3:15—17). The Bible is not private opinion or mere suggestion, “but holy men of God spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit” (2 Pet 1:21 NKJV).
The two sacred texts are antithetical to each other on the essential points of each faith. One must come to the conclusion that either Jesus died on the cross (Matt 26; Mark 14) or He did not (surah 4:157-58). Either Jesus is God (John 1:1—18) and rewards those who deemed Him the Son of God (Matt 16:18), or He was created from dust (surah 3:47) and denounced any such attempt at deifying Him (surah 5:116). Either Jesus declared that He completed the work of salvation (John 19:30), or we must work for our salvation (surah 23:1—11). From creation to the fall, from the flood to the sacrifice of Abraham's son, from the prophets to the apostles, the Bible and the Qur'an significantly differ in their contents. Even one's belief of how to view the Bible is determined by which source is deemed reliable. Muhammad argued that the Qur'an superseded the Bible, asserting, “O people of the Book! There has come to you our Messenger, revealing to you much that you used to hide in the Book, and passing over much (that is now unnecessary): there has come to you from Allah a (new) light and a perspicuous Book” (surah 5:15).
According to Islam the Qur'an abrogates the Scripture and nullifies any of the contents and/or interpretations of the Bible which disagree with the Qur'an. Ironically, this area of revelation poses the greatest difficulty to Islam. Both Islam and Christianity purport not only the inspiration of their holy books but their preservation as well (surah 85:22; Matt 5:17-18). However, Islam denies the present inspiration of the Bible, believing the Bible has been distorted (by the Jews and Christians). Muslim scholars argue that the Torah (Taurat) and the Psalms of David (Zabur) were inspired by God and now are altered. Moreover, they believe that the gospel (Injil) was inspired by God and now is corrupted. Several questions must be broached: Was God not powerful enough to preserve His written Word? Was man powerful enough to corrupt that which God wrote? Perhaps, since God is all-powerful, did He cause His Word to be corrupted? Finally, why should believers trust that the Qur'an will be “guarded from corruption” when the Torah, Psalms of David, and gospel fell prey to man's distortion?
Christians must remember that our faith rises or falls on the foundation of our faith: the Lord Jesus Christ as revealed in the Scripture. Any other foundation will eventually crumble whether rationalism, experientialism, or otherwise. Whenever we base our faith on that which is subjective or contingent, we will utterly fail and, worse, elevate ourselves to deity. We must base our faith not in the limited knowledge within ourselves or the subjective faith outside ourselves but instead on the eternal promises of Him who is above us and gave us His Holy Word.
1 References from the Qur'an are from The Presidency of Islamic Researches, Ifta, Call, and Guidance, ed., The Holy Qur'an (Medina: King Fahd Holy Qur'an Printing Complex, n.d.).
2 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Sanford Kessler (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2000), 179.
3 Ibid., 180. Tocqueville also denounced Islam as antithetical to democracy. He states: “Mohammed brought down from Heaven and placed in the Koran not only religious doctrines, but political maxims, civil and criminal laws, and scientific theories. The Gospel, on the contrary, speaks only about the general relations of men with God and among themselves. Beyond that, it teaches nothing and does not oblige belief about anything. That alone, among a thousand other reasons, suffices to show that the first of these two religions cannot rule for long during times of enlightenment and democracy, whereas the second is destined to reign during these times as in all others” (181).
4 See John W. Whitehead, “An Empty Shell of Faith,” Fort Worth Star- Telegram, 13 November 2006, www.dfw.com/mld/dfw/news/opinion/15988200.htm.
5 See as well Ergun and Emir Caner, Unveiling Islam (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 2002).
6 Thomas S. Kidd, “Islam in American Protestant Thought,” Christianity Today (September/ October 2006), 39. Kidd also references Woodberry's article, “Do Christians and Muslims Worship the Same God?” Christian Century, 18 May 2004, 36—37.
7 The traditional view is seen through notables such as John Calvin who asserted that Muhammad “allowed to men the brutal liberty of chastising their wives and thus he corrupted that conjugal love and fidelity which binds the husband to the wife. … Mohamet allowed full scope to various lusts—by permitting a man to have a number of wives. … Mohamet invented a new form of religion.” (Commentaries on the Book of the Prophet Daniel). Jonathan Edwards asserted that there were “two great works of the devil … his Anti-Christian (Romish or Papal) and Mahometan (Muslim or Islamic) kingdoms … which have been, and still are, two kingdoms of great extent and strength. Both together swallow … up the Ancient Roman Empire. … In the Book of Revelation … it is the destruction of these that the glorious victory of Christ at the introduction of the glorious times of the Church, will mainly consist” (A History of the Work of Redemption).
8 In an article entitled “Poll shows divide between Muslims, West,” Susan Page of USA Today exposed the “chasm of suspicion” between Islam and the West. For example, a majority of Muslims in Indonesia, Jordan, Egypt, and Turkey do not believe Arabs carried out the attacks of 9/11. The article can be found at www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2006-06-22-muslim-west-divide_x.htm?POE=click-refer.
9 Muslim scholars, recognizing the error of such a statement if it is referring to the Trinity, reject the notion that Muhammad is referring to the practice of worshipping Mary as part of the Trinity. Instead, they note that it was commonplace among Eastern and Western Christians by the time of Muhammad to kneel in front of images of Mary and pray to her as the “Mother of God.” Additionally, some historians believe Muhammad was referring to an obscure heretical sect which actually implemented Mary as part of the Trinity. This theory has some plausibility since the rejected fourth-century work, “Gospel of the Hebrews,” identifies Mary with the Holy Spirit. The context of the chapter, though, seems to indicate an implied connection to the Trinity. Surah 5:73 states, “They disbelieve who say: Allah is one of three.” Furthermore, the main Christian denomination of the day, the Nestorians, denied that Mary was divine. It should also be pointed out that the word Arabic Christians use for the Trinity (thaluth) is not mentioned in the Qur'an. In the end, such scholarly arguments give way to a large number of Muslims who merely assume surah 5:116 points out a false Trinity in Christianity and equate a sexual relationship between the Father and Mary in giving birth to Jesus. The Web site, Answering Islam (www.answering-islam.org/Index/index.html), provides valuable introductory information on the topic as well as links to articles which explain and defend the doctrine.
10 Surah 19, “Maryam,” is devoted to honor Mary as a devout and chaste Muslim who is given “the gift of a pure son” (v. 19). During the pains of childbirth, Mary is said to have cried out, “Ah! would that I had died before this!” (v. 23). In this chapter Jesus speaks from the cradle (v. 28), and He also speaks about the coming judgment of those who are not Muslim (unbelievers; vv. 37-40).
11 See Fred Hutchison, “A cure for the educational crisis: Learn from the extraordinary education heritage of the West,” Renew America, 1 June 2006, at www.renewamerica.us/analyses/060601hutchison.htm.
12 The passage, if we assume that language is primary to the argument, would thus read: “If the Lord is God, follow Him, but if Lord (Baal) follow him.”
13 This is, indeed, the concept which then leads the text to conclude regarding Baal's power, “There was no voice; no one answered; no one paid attention” (v. 29).
14 Timothy George, “Is the God of Muhammad the Father of Jesus,” Christianity Today, 4 February 2002, cited in Emir and Ergun Caner, More Than a Prophet (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2003), 28.
15 Ahmer Muzammil, “Answering Tough Questions and Misconceptions about Islam,” Pak-Tribune, 20 June 2006, at www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?147414. The article also deals with difficult issues including jihad and women.
16 Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an (Brentwood, Md.: Amana, 1992), n. 569. See surah 5:48 as well.
17 Christians should be intimately familiar with the four great Christological passages of the New Testament: John 1:1-18, Phil 2:5-11, Col 1:15-23, and Heb 1:1-8.
18 In commenting on this verse, John Calvin elucidates, “Some think that this applies simply to the eternal Divinity of Christ, and compare it with that passage in the writings of Moses, I am what I am (Exod. iii. 14.) But I extend it much farther, because the power and grace of Christ, so far as he is the Redeemer of the world, was common to all ages. It agrees therefore with that saying of the apostle, Christ yesterday, and to-day, and for ever (Heb. xiii.8.)”
19 Erwin W. Lutzer, Christ among Other Gods (Chicago: Moody Press, 1994), 103. Amazingly, Muslims believe Jesus spoke from the cradle, defending Mary's purity. Yet why did Jesus remain silent when the magi came to worship Him (Matt 2:11)?
20 It is ironic that Muslims extend more respect to Jesus as a high prophet than do most liberal Christians. Muslims believe Jesus was born of a virgin; rejection of the virgin birth is a foundation stone of modern theologies. Muslims believe Jesus actually lived in space and time. Liberal Christians proclaim that we cannot know anything substantive about the man Jesus of Nazareth; they scoff at miracles and the supernatural in general. The sad truth is that Jesus is held in higher esteem in mosques around the world than in the lectures from purportedly Christian pulpits.
21 To understand the Islamic perspective of Christ, Christians should especially familiarize themselves with chapters 3—5 in the Qur'an.
22 The Hadith also weighs in on the character of Jesus. For example, to illustrate Jesus' pure birth it asserts, “The Prophet said, ‘When any human being is born, Satan touches him at both sides of the body with his two fingers, except Jesus, the son of Mary, whom Satan tried to touch but failed, for he touched the placenta-cover instead’” (Bukhari 4.506). To substantiate that Christ was only human, it reiterates, “The Prophet said, ‘If anyone testifies that None has the right to be worshiped but Allah Alone Who has no partners, and that Muhammad is His Slave and His Apostle, and that Jesus is Allah's Slave and His Apostle and His Word which He bestowed on Mary and a Spirit created by Him, and that Paradise is true, and Hell is true, Allah will admit him into Paradise with the deeds which he had done even if those deeds were few.’” (Junada, the sub-narrator said, “'Ubada added, ‘Such a person can enter Paradise through any of its eight gates he likes’” [Bukhari 4.644].)
23 Yusuf Ali states, “It is not profitable to discuss the many doubts and conjectures among the early Christian sects and among Muslim theologians” (n. 663). In an attempt to legitimize the Qur'an and put into question the historicity of the crucifixion, Ali argues that many Christian sects denied the death of Christ (Basilidans, Docetae, and pseudepigraphal gospels).
24 If Jesus was replaced after the scourging, did not others recognize that His replacement was without wounds? Or did Allah somehow deceive the people by placing artificial wounds upon Christ's replacement?
25 In fact, if Allah took Christ without tasting death, would it not be better for Mary to know this fact which would inevitably lead to her rejoicing at the privileged status of her Son?
26 Other questions include, What did the replacement do to deserve such a painful end? Because of such inquiries, many Muslims believe it was Judas who replaced Christ because he betrayed Christ and thereby betrayed Allah.
27 The last two facts are referenced in Sahih Muslim Hadith while the previous facts are defended by Muslim scholars including Mufti A. H. Elias. See Caner and Caner, More Than a Prophet, 139-60.
28 Charles Spurgeon, The Second Coming of Christ (New Kensington, Pa.: Whitaker House, 1996), 113.
29 The term convert is used loosely as Muslims argue they believe in “reversion” not “conversion.” Islamic theology argues that all are born Muslims and thus, after reciting the creed, return to their original faith.
30 Obviously, poor Muslims are not required to fulfill this obligation. Also, the amount given varies according to detailed calculations of income, expenses, and taxes.
31 In Bukhari's Hadith, we find that even Muhammad doubted his final destiny. He stated, “By Allah, though I am the Apostle of Allah, yet I do not know what Allah will do with me” (5.266).
32 Consider this one fact: The pilgrimage to Mecca is required of all Muslims who can afford it (surah 3:97), yet less than 10 percent of all Muslims ever make the pilgrimage.
33 For a popular account of a former Muslim who is a secularist, see Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim (New York: Prometheus, 1995).
34 Some Muslims take exception to the statement that there are no prophecies in the Qur'an, specifically pointing to surah 30:2—4, the Roman victory over the Persians. Yet this passage does not have anything essentially supernatural about it and is hardly a long-term prophecy of any sort. See Norman L. Geisler and Abdul Saleeb, The Crescent in Light of the Cross, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2002), 200-1.
35 Many Muslim scholars, eager to attribute miracles and prophecies to the Qur'an, speak of categories such as numeric miracles. For example, it is alleged that the word day is mentioned 365 times in the Qur'an and that the words life and death are each mentioned 145 times (see the popular site www.islamicity.com for such attribution).