1.1. Previous Research Both Martin Luther and Jean Calvin are generally seen as the most significant theologians for their respective Lutheran and Reformed traditions in the 16th century. Both of them, furthermore, invested much of their time to comment on the Bible and saw the composition of Biblical commentaries as central to their vocation.
Both Luther and Calvin composed a commentary on Paul's epistle to the Galatians,1 which makes it exceptionally convenient to compare the two reformers' thought, and specifically those concepts within Galatians seen as substantial2 by Luther and Luther's Lectures on Galatians on which the commentary
Galatians3 is based, took place from July 3rd to December 12th in 1531 in a series of forty-one lectures. A printed version of these was published in 1535.4 Calvin's
1There are a number of other biblical books on which both Luther and Calvin comment, including, for instance, the books of Genesis, Deuteronomy, a number of Psalms and Romans. There is a need for more comparative studies on the theology of Luther's and Calvin's commentaries on these books of the Bible as well, each one of which would certainly provide a unique perspective of its own into Luther's and Calvin's thought. There are some studies which have compared some aspects of Luther's and Calvin's biblical commentaries, but generally the studies have been brief and therefore limited. Thus this study may be seen as making a contribution towards a better understanding between the relationship of the theology of Luther's and Calvin's as expressed in their biblical commentaries.
2By 'substantial concepts' I mean major themes, or key issues in Luther's and Calvin's commentaries on 3Henceforth, "Galatians" in italics is used to refer to Luther's and Calvin's commentaries on Galatians for the sake of brevity. It is indicated in each context which reformers' commentary is referred to.
4Luther had lectured on Galatians preceding this as well, but there are somewhat conflicting statements to be found on how many times. Theodore Graebner, in the preface to his abbreviated translation of Luther's commentary of 1531/35, states that Luther 'had lectured on this Epistle of St. Paul's in 1519 and again in 1523', whereas Jaroslav Pelikan, in his introduction to vol. 27 of Luther's Works, maintains that Luther had lectured on Galatians in 1516-1517, which he used as a basis for his written commentary of 1519. This commentary was edited and shortened by Luther, and published again in 1523. Compare
Graebner 1949: iv-v and Pelikan 1964: Introduction to volume 27, Luther's Works, CD-ROM (no page number, see bibliography for bibliographical detail). The introduction to Luther's 1519 commentary in the Weimarer Ausgabe explains that Luther began his first series of lectures on Galatians on 27 October
1516 and perhaps started a new series of lectures in May 1518. A written commentary was published subsequently at the New Year in 1519. See WA 2: 436. It therefore appears that Luther lectured first on Galatians in 1516-1517, then probably again in 1518-1519, and published a written commentary based on his 1518-1519 lectures in 1519. This was edited into a shorter commentary by Luther in 1523.
Following this, a German translation of Luther's commentary, translated by Vincentius Obsopoeus, appeared in 1525.
Luther lectured again on Galatians in 1531, and these lectures were published in 1535 (Latin), based on Luther's student George Rörer's shorthand notes of Luther's lectures. A second
Latin edition was published in 1538. Further, a German translation of Luther's commentary by Luther's student Justus Menius appeared in 1539 in the Wittenberg edition of Luther's writings. See Graebner
Commentary on Galatians was written5 by Calvin during the period September – November 1546.6 It was published together with his commentaries on Ephesians,
Philippians and Colossians in 1548.
The previous comparisons of Luther's and Calvin's theological thought have mainly dealt with aspects of their theology in general. However, there are only a few works which have attempted to compare the theology of the two reformers'7 biblical commentaries, Galatians8 in particular. This is quite astonishing considering the voluminous number of works dealing with their theology, and the ideal position for comparative purposes of their Galatians commentaries, each being a commentary on a whole book in the New Testament.9
There are at least two main positions on the nature of the differences between the theologies of Luther and Calvin. One, which Randall C.
Zachman names the traditional position (locus classicus), regards their differences as decisive despite the many similarities between their theologies.10 This position generally looks at Calvin as tending towards legalism, demonstrated in his emphasis on sanctification and the third use of the law, while Luther is seen as the theologian of grace and God's love, shown in his concern for the comforting of terrified consciences through the gospel, not the law.11 By way of contrast, the other position
1949: iv-v. For the purposes of this study, it is evident from the attention given to Galatians throughout Luther's reformatory career how important the subjects of this epistle of Paul's were to Luther.
Additionally, Kenneth Hagen names an edition of Luther's Galatians from 1534.
Unfortunately, within the time limits for the preparation for this study, I have not been able to examine this edition of Luther's commentary in any more detail as it does not appear in the Weimarer Ausgabe
(WA) of Luther's writings. A copy of the manuscript can be found in Herzor-August-Bibliothek in Wolfenbüttel, Germany. See Hagen 1993: vii for further bibliographical detail.
5That is, probably written. From 1549 onwards, it is known that Calvin commonly did not have time for writing his commentaries himself, but dictated them instead, either privately or in lectures, and then checked the text afterwards. While it is possible that the same would have been the case with some of his earlier commentaries, Calvin's own comments, which are dealt with in section 2.2., seem to suggest that he wrote his Galatians himself. See also Parker 1993: 15-31, esp. p. 27.
6See section 2.1. for further discussion.
7Henceforth, the term 'reformers' is used in reference to Luther and Calvin for the sake of brevity, unless otherwise stated.
8Henceforth, 'Galatians' in normal font, not italics, is used in reference to Paul's epistle to the Galatians.
9There are two whole books of the New Testament on which both Luther and Calvin comment, namely, Romans and Galatians. However, as Luther wrote his commentary on Romans very early in his reformatory career, 1515-16, it seemed more appropriate to use Luther's Galatians 1531/35 for the comparison as it clearly reflects his evangelical insight in a more mature form.
10See Zachmann 1993: 4-5.
11Out of the scholars who have specifically compared Luther's and Calvin's Galatians, Parker's view can be seen as close to the position identifying a significant difference between Luther and Calvin. However, he probably would not go so far as to see Calvin as tending towards legalism. See Parker 1963. His work is briefly reviewed below and further examined in section 2.3. Zachman refers to Reinhold Seeberg, Max
Weber, Ernst Troeltsch, Steven Ozment, and, with some qualifications, Jaroslav Pelikan, as representatives of this view. The works of these authors which Zachman refers to include Seeberg, The History of Doctrines (1977), Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1958), Troeltsch,
The Social Teaching of the Christian Church (1981), Pelikan, Reformation of Church and Dogma (1300sees a thoroughgoing continuity between Luther's and Calvin's theology, and while recognizing some differences, sees them largely as a matter of varying emphases rather than as disagreements in substance.12 It is within the context of these two differing views that the results of this research can make a further contribution.
As far as bibliographies available to me13 have indicated, there are only three articles and one monograph which specifically compare aspects of Luther's and Calvin's Galatians, namely T.D. Parker´s article, 'Interpretation of Scripture (Comparison of Calvin and Luther on Galatians)', Wolfgang Engels' doctoral thesis Das Gesetzverständnis Calvins, vornehmlich nach seinen
Kommentaren zu den Briefen des Paulus, I.J. Hesselink´s article, 'Luther and Calvin on law and gospel in their Galatians Commentaries' and A. Noordegraaf's article,
'Om de waardheid van het Evangelie: Galaten 2.11-14 in de uitleg van Luther en Parker's article focuses on a comparative analysis of Luther's and Calvin's biblical interpretation but it nonetheless has some bearing on the two reformers' theology, too. Parker sees both Luther and Calvin as affirming the three
Reformation sola's, sola fide, solus Christus and sola Scriptura. However, he sees a difference between the two reformers in that Calvin stresses the complementarity of the law and the gospel while Luther emphasizes the law and the gospel as the two opposite foci of in his Galatians. Calvin, he further accentuates, is primarily
1700) (1984) and Ozment, The Age of Reform, 1250-1550 (1980). See Zachman 1993: 3-4 for further bibliographical detail.
12Out of the scholars who have specifically compared Luther's and Calvin's Galatians, Engels and Hesselink can be seen as representing this position. See Engels 1967 and Hesselink 1984. Both of their works are briefly reviewed below. It appears that Noordegraaf 1989 also underlines, with some qualifications, the continuity between Luther's and Calvin's theology. Zachman also represents this view. See Zachman 1993: 6-8.
13These include D. Alfredus Erichson's (ed.) Bibliographia Calviniana: Catalogus chronologicus operum Calvini (lists all works dealing with Calvin from Calvin's lifetime to year 1900), Wilhelm
Niesel's Calvin - Bibliographie 1901-1959 (1961), Pierre Fraenkel's 'Petit supplément aux bibliographies calviniennes 1901-1963' (1971), D. Kempf's, A Bibliography of Calviniana 1959-1974
(1975), and the subsequent yearly bibliographies available in the Calvin Theological Journal, up to and including 2006.
An additional search was made for works which deal exclusively with Luther's Galatians, which, however, was not exhaustive since the primary purpose of the search was to find works which would compare the two reformers' commentaries (which the search of the bibliographies on literature on Calvin had already brought to light). Publications dealing with Luther's Galatians were searched, among other things, by means of the ATLA religion database, by the internet service scholar.google.com, and by reviewing the bibliographies of each of the works examining Luther's
Galatians. The listing of works dealing with Luther's Galatians in the bibliography of this study should cover most scholarly works, which name Luther's Galatians in their title and are published in this or the last century.
14See the bibliography at the end of this study on Parker 1963, Engels 1967, Hesselink 1984 and Noordegraaf 1989 for further bibliographical detail. Although Wolfgang Engels' work deals primarily with Calvin's commentaries and sermons on Paul's writings, he makes regular comparisons of Calvin's writings to Luther's commentary on Galatians. Among these there are a number of comparisons between Calvin's and Luther's Galatians. interested in the revelation of God's will for the edification of Christians, while
Luther stresses justification as the one prime theme of Scripture.15 Further, Luther focuses on the subjective experience of the Christian conscience, an accent not present in Calvin's Galatians. Parker's article is treated in more detail in section
2.3. on the interpretation of Scripture.
Engels' work on the law in Calvin's commentaries on Paul16 proved more beneficial for our present study than was suggested by the title of his doctoral thesis, primarily due to the fact that there are regular comparisons of ideas found in Calvin's commentaries to those present in Luther's Galatians.17 A few of these references represent direct comparisons between themes in Luther's and Calvin's
Galatians.18 Engels sees more similarities than differences between Luther's and Calvin's concepts of the law. Engels, differing from Parker, argues that both Luther and Calvin see a contrast between the law and the gospel. He affirms that both reformers agree on the fact that it is impossible to find justification through the law
– righteousness can only be found in the gospel of Christ.19 Similarly, each reformer stresses the importance of Christian liberty.20 Further, both Luther and Calvin see the accusing function of the law (usus elenchticus legis) as important – it reveals and condemns human sin and thus prepares for the gospel.21 Again, each reformer sees the law as necessary also for the Christian, although only Calvin explicitly identifies a positive exhortatory role for the law in the believers' lives (usus in renatiis).22 However, where Luther strongly accentuates the contrast between the law and the gospel, Calvin sees the two as united in Christ, who is the Giver of both the gospel and the law. This, however, does not mean that for Calvin the law can be mixed with the gospel (or that one could in some way reach righteousness through 15See Parker 1963: 68, 70, 73-75.
16For Engels, Calvin's commentaries on Paul include, not only specific commentaries on Paul's letters, but also his sermons on the same epistles.
17Engels makes comparisons between Calvin's ideas and those of several theologians, including those of Augustine, Faber Stapulensis, Bucer and Melanchthon, for instance. See e.g. Engels 1967: 30-31 (vol. 1).
However, the most significant comparisons appear to be made between Luther and Calvin, occurring in the introduction, the conclusion and a number of chapters of his work. Additionally, Engels includes a separate section on Luther's concept of the law in his Galatians 1531/1535. For example, see Engels
1967: 14, 45-49, 114, 116-117, 133-135 (vol. 1).
18The themes analysed in Engels' book include Calvin's theology of God's covenant, the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, and law and gospel, as far as these themes relate to idea of the law in Calvin's commentaries on Paul's letters.
19See Engels 1967: 48-49 (vol. 1). This represents Engels' comparison between Luther's and Calvin's 20See Engels 1967: 133 (vol. 1). This represents Engels' comparison between Luther's Galatians and Calvin's other biblical commentaries on Paul's writings (not Galatians).
21See Engels 1967: 114, 116-117 (vol. 1). See also Engels 1967: 48 (vol. 2), notes 48-52. This represents Engels' comparison between Luther's and Calvin's Galatians.
22See Engels 1967: 111, (vol. 1). See also Engels 1967: 43, note 19, (vol. 2). This represents Engels' comparison between Luther's Galatians and Calvin's other Biblical commentaries on Paul's writings the law). Instead, Calvin shows that even in the Mosaic law there is a promise of salvation by grace, in accordance with the earlier covenant of God with Abraham.23
Hesselink's article represents the kind of comparison intended in the present study in that Hesselink limits itself to Luther's and Calvin's Galatians and focuses on theological concepts. However, his article is brief and limited to the themes of the law and the gospel. Similarly to Engels, Hesselink argues in his article that Luther and Calvin are much more similar in their theology than has often been thought. This includes a far reaching consensus in Luther's and Calvin's positions on the law-gospel contrast. Hesselink affirms that Calvin, no less than
Luther, maintains that there is a sense in which the gospel stands in stark contrast with the law. Also, Luther strongly stresses the importance of good works, an emphasis often seen as the prerogative of Calvin, and in actual fact Luther accentuates good works even more than Calvin does in his commentary. Despite this, some differences remain, especially relating to the fact that only Calvin explicitly affirms a third use for the law, that of the law as a positive guide in the believers' lives.24
Noordegraaf limits his comparison between Luther and Calvin to the theme of the truth of the gospel (wardheit van het Evangelie). He examines this theme in terms of a specific section of Luther's and Calvin's commentaries, their comment on Galatians 2.11-14.25 Noordegraaf's analysis of Luther's and Calvin's
Galatians is rather brief, because his article also deals with the biblical and patristic background relating to the interpretation of Gal. 2.11-14 and, in addition to Luther's
1531/35 and Calvin's 1546/48 commentaries on Galatians, also includes an examination of Luther's and Calvin's other comment on Gal. 2.11-14 (Luther's
1516-17 lecture and 1518-19 commentary on Galatians26 and Calvin's Deux Congrégations 1563). Nevertheless, Noordegraaf's article presents some interesting viewpoints significant for the purposes of this study.27 Noordegraaf highlights the centrality of righteousness by faith alone and Christian liberty as against righteousness of works both in Luther and in Calvin and accentuates the importance of this doctrine in authentic gospel ministry and preaching.28 Moreover,
Noordegraaf points out a large degree of agreement between Luther and Calvin in 23See Engels 1967: 48-49, (vol. 1). This represents Engels' comparison between Luther's and Calvin's commentaries on Galatians. This is connected to Engels identification of two kinds of definitions Calvin has for the law – one definition deals with the law in itself (lex per se), the other with the law as a larger concept, where the law encompasses also the gospel (lex seu evangelium).
24See Hesselink 1984: 77-79.
25To a lesser extent, Noordegraaf also deals with Luther's and Calvin's comments on Galatians 1 and 2.
26Noordegraaf terms Luther's 1519 commentary on Galatians, '1518-1519 commentary'. See Noordegraaf 1989: 92.
27Noordegraaf's comparisons between Luther and Calvin are not specific to their commentaries on Galatians 1531/35 (Luther) and 1546/48 (Calvin), but include the additional works of Luther and Calvin on Galatians mentioned above. Interestingly, Noordegraaf does not comment on Calvin's sermons on Galatians, although he takes Calvin's Deux congrégations on Gal. 2.11-14 (1563) into consideration.
28See e.g. Noordegraaf 1989: 100, 104-105. their adherence to the four sola's of the Reformation (sola fide, solus Christus, sola gratia, sola scriptura) while on the other he sees some difference in their respective positions on the relationship between justification and sanctification.29 He regards the subject of sanctification to be overshadowed in Luther by his focus on justification, while for Calvin justification and sanctification are two aspects of God's grace to the believer in Christ.30
Parker, Engels, Hesselink and Noordegraaf's works each identify a number of key issues in the two reformers' commentaries, but due to their brevity or chosen focus, there is a remaining need for other studies which aim to address the full scope and richness of, and analyze the relationship between substantial concepts in Luther's and Calvin's Galatians.
Attention is now briefly turned to publications dealing exclusively with either Luther or Calvin's Galatians.
As Luther's Galatians is seen as central for his more mature theology, there are a number of theological publications investigating various aspects of Luther's commentary. These have been useful in preparing the analysis and comparison below, the most relevant ones of which have been reviewed in the introductory section to chapter four on Luther's Galatians.
The theology of Calvin's Galatians, however, has been analysed hardly at all,31 apart from a brief treatment by Helmut Feld.32 I see this unfortunate lack of studies on Calvin's Galatians as providing further impetus to this research.
29See Noordegraaf 1989: 105.
30Noordegraaf states, 'Terwijl bij Luther, ook in zijn lezen en verstaan van Paulus, de heiliging min of meer in de schaduw van de rechtvaardiging is blijven staan, heeft Calvijn in zijn uitleg van Paulus de eenheid van rechtvaardiging en heiliging als twee aspecten van de ene genade van God in Christus beklemtoond' (Noordegraaf 1989: 105).
31For one reason or another, Calvin's commentaries on Genesis, Psalms, Isaiah, the Gospels (especially John) and Romans appear to have been analysed most frequently leaving Calvin's other Biblical commentaries largely neglected. For a recent and welcome attempt to cover more of Calvin's treatment of the Bible, see McKim 2006.
32Even Feld's treatment of the theology of Calvin's Galatians in his Einleitung in vol. 16 of Ioannis Calvini Opera Exegetica does not deal exclusively with Calvin's Galatians. Instead, it is a consideration of the unit of Calvin's commentaries on Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians and Colossians. See Feld
1992. Two further publications have been identified in the literature search, which address Calvin's Galatians specifically, namely Rodolphe Peter's and Jean-Francois Gilmont's Bibliotheca Calviniana:
Les oevres de Jean Calvin publiées au XVIe siècle: I. Écrits théologiques, littéraires et juridiques 15321554, pp. 268-269 and Riemer A. Faber's 'The Influence of Erasmus' Annotationes on Calvin's
Galatians Commentary'. See Peter and Gilmont 1991 and Faber 2004 for further detail. However, the focus of these two works is not on the theology of Calvin's Galatians. These works, in addition to that of Feld, are nevertheless briefly reviewed in the beginning of section 5 of this study.
The task of this research is twofold. In the first place, it is to analyse substantial concepts in Luther's and Calvin's Galatians, and secondly, to compare the identified concepts in Luther's and Calvin's commentaries. It is hoped that this will shed light on each reformers' theological thought, and in particular on the themes seen as central by the reformers in Paul's epistle to the Galatians. There are, however, at least three possible objections to the feasibility of making a comparison of Luther's 1531/35 and Calvin's 1548 commentaries on Galatians, which are now briefly discussed.
One possible objection to comparing Luther's and Calvin's Galatians is that Luther's Galatians is, strictly speaking, neither written by him nor a commentary. Instead, it is based on the lecture notes of Georg Rörer, Luther's student, who worked his lecture notes into a publishable form by 1535. Nonetheless, there is good reason to consider Luther's Galatians as a reliable commentary which reflects his thought on Galatians. Among the commentaries of Luther, his Galatians is one of the few where it is possible to weigh the actual lecture notes against their printed version.33 The comparisons have established Rörer's work as reliable.34
Most importantly, Luther explicitly recognized the written commentary as trustworthy. 35
Another possible objection is to question whether Calvin's commentary contains sufficient material for a fair comparison - it is less than a third af the length of Luther's and written in a somewhat different style, with proportionately more exegetical comment and less theological exposition than
Luther.36 However, a careful reading of Calvin's commentary evidences a concise but full treatment of his key subjects, a treatment which is comparable with that of 33Rörer's notes have been preserved and are available above the text of Galatians in the Weimar edition of Luther's writings.
34The trustworthiness of Rörer's work is additionally supported by the fact that despite his lecture notes being very complete, he checked them against the notes of two other students Veit Dietrich and Caspar
35'Et tamen sentio meas cogitationes esse omnes quas in hoc scripto per fratres tanta diligentia signatas reperio, ut fateri cogar vel omnia vel etiam plura fortasse in ista publica tractatione a me esse dicta.'
WA40a.33.4-6. Praefatio D. Martini Lutheri, 1535. 'Per fratres' here refers to Rörer, Veit Dietrich and 36See also section 2.2 of this thesis. Calvin focused on comprehensive theological exposition in his
Institutes rather than in his biblical commentaries. See CO 1, p. 253. His commentary on Galatians, as his other biblical commentaries, were generally intended for pastors, who could then use them as a basis for sermons. This is one key reason behind the fact that his biblical commentaries are so brief, presenting only key concepts in a compact form. See e.g. Zachman 2003: 482. However, as noted above, Calvin treats key themes in Galatians sufficiently to make possible a relevant comparison of his and Luther's
37Luther, for his part, would have preferred his commentary to be much shorter. He moaned for it being as lengthy as Rörer's written lecture notes showed. He stated, 'Vix ipse credo, tam verbosum fuisse me,
A third possible objection is to regard Luther's 1519 commentary on Galatians as more appropriate for a comparison with Calvin's 1548 commentary on Galatians than Luther's 1531/35 commentary. This view could be defended on the grounds that Luther's 1519 commentary is properly speaking a commentary, written by Luther himself, and that it already portrays his evangelical understanding of the issues dealt with in Galatians. In favour of this objection, it must be recognized that a comparison of Luther's 1519 commentary on Galatians to Calvin's 1548 commentary on Galatians would undoubtedly be both fruitful and interesting. Nevertheless, it seemed more appropriate to draw the comparison between Luther's and Calvin's comments on Galatians using Luther's later rather than his earlier commentary because of the significance of Luther's 1531/35 commentary on Galatians recognized both by Luther himself38 and by modern scholarship and because of the fact that the later commentary expresses his evangelical thought in a more developed form.39
There are at least four considerations which call for a comparison of Luther's and Calvin's Galatians. 1) Both Luther's and Calvin's Galatians represent the reformers' thought at a period when their theology had been, to a large extent, established. Luther's more mature period as a reformer is generally seen to have started by the year 1530.40 Calvin, for his part, made no major changes in doctrine since the publication of his Institutio of 1539.41 cum enarrarem publice hanc Sancti Pauli ad Galatas Epistolam, quam hic me libellus exhibet.'
WA40a.33.2-4. Praefatio D. Martini Lutheri, 1535.
38See WA Tischreden 1.146, between December 1531 and January 1532 and WA Tischreden 5.5511, winter of 1542-43.
39This is not to say that no developments can be identified in Luther after 1531. Nevertheless, Luther's commentary on Galatians represents one of Luther's major works written during a period when Luther's theology had matured significantly as compared to the period of the writing of the earlier commentary in 1519. Additionally, Luther himself expressed a special liking for his commentary on Galatians, as pointed out below.
40Luther's career is often divided into three parts a) Luther as a Catholic, b) Luther as a reforming Catholic and c) 'the Lutheran Luther' (Spitz' introduction to the Career of the Reformer IV, LW 34, p.
2). The last period is generally seen to have started by the year 1530. Compare e.g. Spitz' introduction to the Career of the Reformer IV, LW 34, p. 2 and Bainton 1950: 292. Some authors place the starting point of Luther's career as independent from the Catholic church a little earlier or later than 1530. For instance,
Brecht, in his three volume account of Luther's life, includes 1530-32 in the second volume on the organising and defining of the Reformation, and starts the last volume on the maintaining of the church from 1532. See Brecht 1986, 1987. Althaus, referring to Luther's doctrine on the Lord's Supper, sees that a 'fully developed' form of Luther's doctrine on this issue can be identified in his writings in 1527/28.
See Althaus 1966: 375-403, esp. pp. 380-382. Depending on the subject at issue, the line may be drawn differently, however. Prenter, for instance, suggests that Luther's theology of the Holy Spirit expressed
'a richness, vitality and depth' already by the year 1522, which was 'never surpassed later'. From this year on, the formulation of Luther's theology of the Spirit was affected to a large degree by the presence of the enthuasiasts (Schwärmerei), which narrowed down the way Luther expressed his view subsequently. See Prenter 1953: xv-xviii. Prenter does not deny the possibility of later adjustments, however. Prenter 1953: 206 (205-246). What is important for the purposes of this research, however, is that Luther's Galatians,1531/1535, is normally seen to represent a more mature form of Luther's theology. This is not to say, however, that no developments can be identified in Luther's theology after 2) A further consideration is that Galatians was so central for Luther. He named Paul's epistle to the Galatians his Katy von Bora42 and attached special importance to his commentary on the epistle highlighting his Galatians as one of his most important works.43 Although Calvin did not name Galatians his
Idelette de Bure,44 Galatians is one of the few books of the Bible, which Calvin expounded thrice, which indicates its special importance for him.45 Further, it is clear from any version of his Institutio that themes identified by Calvin as central in Galatians such as those of justification, law and Christian liberty, were important for him. 3) Although Luther's Galatians is different from Calvin's Galatians in that it is based on lecture notes, the fact that both reformers have commented on the same text relatively concisely, and verse by verse, constitutes an exceptionally fitting point of comparison between the two reformers' theological thought. 4)
Furthermore, as noted above, there have been only a few works whose main purpose has been to compare the theology of Luther's and Calvin's Galatians with one another.
1531. For instance, Martin Greschat has made an interesting study of the development of Luther and Melanchthon's doctrines of justification between 1528 and 1537. See e.g. Greschat's concluding remarks in Greschat 1965: 242-251.
41Parker believes that Calvin made no changes in doctrine between 1539-59. See Parker 1993: 203. 1539 was the year of the second edition of Calvin's Institutio. The 1559 edition was the last Latin edition of Calvin's Institutio, written five years before Calvin's death in 1564 (an additional translation of this edition into French by Calvin appeared in 1561).
42'Epistola ad Galatas ist mein epistelcha, der ich mir vertrawt hab. Ist mein Keth von Bor.' WA Tischreden 1.146, between December 14, 1531 and January 22, 1532.
43'Wenn Sie mir solgen wolten, musten sie die bucher allen drucken, die doctrinam haben, als ad Galatas, Deuteronomium, in Iohannem.' WA Tischreden 5.5511, winter of 1542–1543. In the same context,
Luther recommends Melanchthon's Loci Communes and commentary on Romans and his own commentaries on Deuteronomy and John.
44Calvin expressed a special liking to 2 Timothy, which had profited him more 'than any other book in Scripture'. Calvin states, 'Quant à moi, ie scay que que ceste epistre m'a autant profité que nul livre de l'Escriture, et tous les iours encores profite: et quand chacun y regardera songneusement, il n'y a doute qu'il n trouve le semblable.' CO 54.5.24-26. See also Parker 1992: 83. Surprisingly, Calvin's commentary for 2 Timothy, similarly to his Galatians, has been hardly given any attention in scholarly publications.
45Calvin wrote a commentary on Galatians in 1546, preached on Galatians 1557-58 and also presented special studies on Galatians in 1563 in his Deux congrégations. Rodolphe Peter points to this and affirms, 'Calvin a traité trios fois l'épitre aux Galates, montrant ainsi l'intérêt qu'il portait à cette lettre paulinienne: il l'a commentée, présentée en chaire et proposée aux congrégations du vendredi.' Peter
1964 : xxi. Peter further lists the other Bible books which Calvin also expounded three times, namely Deuteronomy, Psalms, Isaiah and the synoptic gospels. Peter 1964: xxi.
The research method utilised in this study is a comparative analysis of Luther's and Calvin's respective commentaries. Substantial concepts in each commentary have first been identified, then analysed and consequently compared with one another.
In preparation for this research, a choice had to be made between drawing comparisons between Luther's and Calvin's Galatians in their entirety as against comparing their respective interpretations of particular verses/phrases.
Appendix 5 indicates an example of how the themes of Luther's and Calvin's comments on Galatians 2 vary from verse to verse. Generally both comment on the same phrases (overlooking the differences in the Latin of Galatians) – at times the concepts discussed are similar, at others they differ, and on other occasions one reformer comes to the theme treated by the other a little later or earlier.46 It gradually became evident that limiting this study to interpretations of particular verses would easily have become one-sided, would have emphasised somewhat arbitrary differences between the German and the Swiss reformers' commentaries and would fail to demonstrate the similarity vs. difference of Luther's and Calvin's theology in their Galatians in general.47 That is why the substantial concepts have been analysed from the point of view of the whole commentary while differences / similarities on interpretations of individual verses are also looked at where deemed appropriate.
The analysis of each commentary has followed approximately the following procedure. First, the primary concepts in Luther's and Calvin's comments on a particular passage / verse / phrase in Galatians have been identified, on the basis of which the substantial themes have been identified (see Appendix 4). This type of rather mechanical method of identifying the major concepts in the commentaries has been utilised in order to avoid subjective judgment and the prioritising of minor or less frequent themes.48 Second, the content of Luther or 46For similar concepts in Luther's and Calvin's discussion of particular verses in Galatians 2, see
Appendix 5 on e.g. Gal. 2.3, 2.21, for different concepts in their treatment of particular verses, see e.g. on Gal. 2.2, 2.17 and on concepts where one reformer comes to the theme treated by the other previously or afterwards, see e.g. on Gal. 2.1-2, 2.11-15.
47The method of comparing Luther's and Calvin's interpretation of particular verses fits well in a study where the development of the interpretation of each on a particular verse / passage is traced from one commentary to another. Such a comparison between Luther's and Calvin's interpretation of Gal. 2.11-14 has been drawn by Noordegraaf for instance. See Noordegraaf 1989.
48It needs to be borne in mind that the identification of the length and frequency of Luther's and Calvin's discussion of the various concepts in their Galatians as presented in Appendix 4 does not present the main analysis of this paper. Instead, this provides a necessary backdrop for the analysis and comparison, found in chapters 4 to 6 of this research. Nevertheless, during the analysis, it was the most frequent and most often treated themes which emerged as the most significant. Further, the approach of prioritising the themes treated most fully by Luther and Calvin helps one to remain faithful to Luther's and Calvin's chosen emphases. See the 'general note on the limitations of the table' at the end of Appendix 4 for further detail.
Calvin's discussion on the identified primary themes has been analysed and concisely presented in sections 4 and 5 of this study. Third, the substantial concepts in Luther's commentary (chapter 4) and Calvin's commentary (chapter 5) have been compared and contrasted with each other in chapter 6.
The research is organised as follows. Following the introduction (chapter one), chapter two draws together a brief outline of preliminary considerations which are seen as focal in order to understand the respective commentaries. This includes succinct remarks on 1) the historical context, 2) stylistic factors, 3) interpretation of Galatians and 4) the relationship of Luther's and Calvin's Galatians to preceding and contemporary commentators and theologians.
The third chapter focuses on the theological setting of Luther's and Calvin's Galatians. This includes a brief evaluation of concepts corresponding to Luther's and Calvin's Galatians in Luther's earlier commentary on Galatians (1519), his
Grosse Katechismus (1529) and Calvin's Institutio 1539 and 1545. The fourth and fifth chapters set out the results of the analysis on substantial concepts in Luther's and Calvin's Galatians.49 Section six presents the identified similarities and differences in the theology of Luther's and Calvin's Galatians.
It may be appropriate to note one further detail in Luther's and Calvin's references to specific verses and passages in the Bible in this study. It is each time indicated which Bible verse or passage Luther and Calvin discuss when quoting or referring to their Biblical commentaries. This is done for the sake of clarity and convenience, although it is at the same time recognised that at the time
Luther and Calvin composed their commentaries, the Bible was not yet divided into verses.50
The primary sources are Luther's Galatians (1535 - Latin) and Calvin's Galatians (1548 - Latin). Both Luther's and Calvin's Galatians underwent two further editions approved by their authors, Luther's in 1538 (Latin) and 1539 (German) and Calvin's in 1551 and 1556 (both Latin). It may be noted here, however, that the changes were minor and therefore the first editions have been chosen as primary sources for this research. The edition used for Luther's Galatians can be found in volumes 40a and 40b of the Weimarer Ausgabe of Luther's writings (WA) while
49In the analysis, an effort has been made to remain faithful to the reformers' stated emphases and therefore the sections and their subdivisions have not necessarily been classified under the same headings for Luther's and Calvin's commentaries, but follow the perceived structure of each reformers' thought.
50The division of Bible passages into verses was for the first time introduced in Robert Estienne's (Stephanus) fourth Greek edition of the New Testament in 1551. See e.g. 'Estienne, Robert I', The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica vol. 4, Micropaedia, Goetz, Philip W (ed. in chief) Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., 1987. the edition used for Calvin's Galatians is the latest edition of Calvin's Galatians in volume 16 of Calvini Opera Recognita (COR), edited by Helmut Feld.51 It may further be appropriate to note that it is primarily the published full text Latin version of Luther's Galatians that is used in this study, instead of Rörer's shorthand notes of Luther's lectures (which are also available in WA 40a-40b). This seems appropriate, in the first place, because the reliability of the full text version of Luther's Galatians has been recognised both by Luther and by modern Luther scholarship. Second, the full text version has been utilised for the sake of convenience, since Rörer's shorthand notes are usually made up of abbreviated, not full sentences. As Calvin's Galatians was written by him,52 no such differentiation is necessary for his commentary.
Auxiliary primary sources include the two reformers' works examined in section 3 of this study, seeking to identify connections in Luther's and Calvin's earlier and contemporary theology to their Galatians commentaries of 1531/1535 and 1548. These include Luther's Commentary on Galatians from 1519
(Latin) and his Grosse Katechismus 1529 (German) as well as two editions of Calvin's Institutio Religionis Christianae, 53 1539 (Latin) and 1545 (Latin).
Moreover, some of Luther's and Calvin's later comment on Galatians have been used for further insights into the themes of Galatians. Calvin's series of forty-three Sermons on Galatians 1557-58 (French) and Calvin's Deux
Congrégations 1563 on Gal. 2.11-21, though originating at a time later than the commentary, are regarded as Calvin's later important comment on the subjects dealt with in Galatians.54 Similarly, a few of Luther's thirty sermons, which he preached on Galatians between 1531 and 1545, have been used for his later comment on concepts important to Luther's Galatians.55
51The Latin version of Calvin's Galatians utilised in COR vol. 16 is the 1556 edition of Calvin's Galatians. However, the earlier 1548 and 1551 editions are referenced in the footnotes of COR 16. The differences are not many, but the text of the 1548 edition has been utilised in this study. See
Commentarii in Pauli Epistolas: Ad Galatas. Ioannis Calvini Opera Exegetica. Vol. 16. Helmut Feld (ed.), Genève: Librairie Droz, 1992. (COR 16). Additionally, the Corpus Reformatorum edition of Calvin's Galatians has been utilised, too, for the sake of convenience in Appendix 4, as Corpus
Reformatorum is still often used as the primary source. In Appendix 4 the references to substantial concepts in Calvin's Galatians are made both to Calvini Opera Recognita (COR) and the Corpus
Reformatorum editions (CO) of Calvin's commentary.
52See footnote 4 above.
53Henceforth, Institutio is used as a short form for Institutio Religionis Christianae.
54Calvin's Deux congrégations 1563 are two Bible studies which Calvin presented on two Fridays in 1563 on the passage in Gal. 2.11-21. They deal primarily with the theology of the passage, and provide some helpful further insights on Calvin's thought on important themes within Galatians. See Peter 1964: xxi for further detail.
55Hermann Kleinknecht has made a helpful list of all of Luther's sermons following the commencement of his Galatians lectures 1531 in the end of his Luthers Galaterbrief-Auslegung von 1531, vol. 4: Der
Galaterbrief, pp. 361-362, 386-387. He has included excerpts (at times with explanatory comments) of twenty-seven of the thirty sermons he gives references to in pp. 363-408 of his work. See Kleinknecht
A number of other auxiliary sources authored by Luther and Calvin have been used as well, including, among others, Luther's Tischreden, Calvin's
Institution de la religion chrestiènne (1541) and Luther's and Calvin's letters from around the time of the writing of their Galatians. The specific sources are listed in the footnotes, and are referenced to the Weimarer Ausgabe of Luther's (WA) and the Corpus Reformatorum edition of Calvin's writings (CO). One further source ought to be noted, namely that of Theodore Beza's Johannis Calvini Vita 1564
1.5. Delimitations and Scope of Research This research limits itself to substantial concepts in the theology of Luther's and Calvin's Galatians. Thus exegetical / hermeneutical factors and allusions to preceding commentators / contemporary situations are only briefly outlined in the chapter on preliminary factors relating to the theology of Luther's and Calvin's
Further, the investigation into Luther's and Calvin's theology is limited, in the first place, close to the time of composing Galatians. Despite the fact that some of Luther's and Calvin's work both preceding and succeeding their
Galatians are also considered, the primary results of this study relate to Luther's and Calvin's theology around 1531/35 and 1546/48, respectively.
It also needs to be borne in mind that the main sections dealing with substantial concepts in Luther's and Calvin's Galatians are not to be seen as exhaustive or comprehensive. Instead, some themes, which appear central, have been chosen for analysis and they have been treated to the extent it is possible in a work of this kind.56 Again, the comparative part of the research focuses on what is seen as central in Luther's and Calvin's Galatians in particular, and not in their theologies in general.
One further limitation is linked to the chosen structure of presenting the substantial concepts of Luther's and Calvin's Galatians. For purposes of clarity and in order to facilitate the comparison of specific ideas of Luther and Calvin, the themes are divided under subject headings such as justification, the law and good works. One needs to bear in mind, however, the intimate interlinking of the themes with each other. The respective chapters on the law and good works, for instance, only deal with issues explicitly and directly connected with these themes. However, in order to gain a more complete picture of Luther's and Calvin's concepts of the 1980: 363-408. The references to Luther's sermons in this study, however, are to the Weimarer Ausgabe of Luther's writings.
56For instance, a study which would compare only the concept of the work of the Holy Spirit in Luther's and Calvin's Galatians, would be able to examine this theme in more detail and take into account the larger context and interrelated concepts to a much greater extent than has been done in this study. law and good works, one needs to take into consideration the larger picture relating to righteousness by faith as against the righteousness by the law and the law and gospel contrast, among other things. As this study does not focus exclusively on the concepts of law and good works in Luther's and Calvin's Galatians, however, the larger picture dealing with each of the concepts cannot be taken into account in allinclusive detail.