NOTES

NOTES

Preface

¹Patricia Hill, The World Their Household: The American Woman’s Foreign Mission Movement and Cultural Transformation, 1870–1920 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1985), 2, quoted in James J. Kenneally, “Eve, Mary, and the Historians,” in Janet Wilson James, ed., Women in American Religion (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1980), 206.

²Catherine Booth, “Female Ministry; or, Woman’s Right to Preach the Gospel,” in Papers on Practical Religion (London: S. W. Partridge, 1978), 122–23.

³John R. Rice, Bobbed Hair, Bossy Wives and Women Preachers (Murfreesboro, Tenn.: Sword of the Lord, 1941), 59.

⁴Peter Berger, The Sacred Canopy; Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (Garden City: Doubleday, 1967), 108.

⁵Frances Willard, Women in the Pulpit (Boston: Lathrop, 1888), 73.

Chapter 1

¹Luke 1:5–22, 26–38.

²Luke 1:20.

³Luke 1:45.

⁴The patriarchal nature of Old Testament society—that is, the assumption of male superiority common in Ancient Near Eastern society—is now assumed by many interpreters. The following works will provide an introduction to the various approaches to the way women are pictured in the Old Testament: Phyllis Trible, God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978) and Texts of Terror (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984); John H. Otwell, And Sarah Laughed: The Status of Women in the Old Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1977); Leonard Swidler, Biblical Affirmations of Women (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1979).

⁵Judith 10:5; 112; 12:7–9; Judith 4:12; 8:31; 92–14; 12:6, 8; 13:4, 5, 7; 16:1–17; Judith 10:6–1220.

⁶G. W. E. Nickelsburg in Michael E. Stone, ed., Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period. Compendia Rerum ludicarum ad Novum Testamentum. Section 2 (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), 50–51.

⁷Tobit 8:5–6.

⁸We are assuming that Luke is reproducing essentially what Mary said, although this is disputed by some scholars who assume it comes from another source or is his own creation.

⁹Both Mary J. Evans (Woman in the Bible [Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1983], 57–60) and James B. Hurley (Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1981], 112–14) devote an extra section to Mary. This indicates their recognition of her importance, but neither sees as much in the narratives concerning her as does Ben Witherington III (Women in the Ministry of Jesus. Society for New Testament Studies, monograph series 51 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 80–100). In his opinion Mary was in the process of becoming a disciple.

¹⁰See, for example, Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John I-XII, Anchor Bible 29 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1966), 99; Ernst Haenchen, A Commentary on the Gospel of John, trans. Robert W. Funk (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980), 173; Leon Morris, Commentary on the Gospel of John, The New International Commentary Series (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), 180–82.

¹¹Brown, The Gospel According to John, 99.

¹²Witherington, Women in the Ministry of Jesus, 95.

¹³Mark 3:21.

¹⁴Matthew 12:46–50; Mark 3:31–35; Luke 8:19–21.

¹⁵Luke 11:27–28.

¹⁶Luke 12:13–14.

¹⁷Luke 1:39–45; 2:36–38.

¹⁸Luke 15–7.

¹⁹Luke 225–38.

²⁰Luke 2:36.

²¹Luke 10:38–42.

²²Leonard Swidler, Biblical Affirmations of Woman (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1979), 192. Cf. Hurley, Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective, 88–89; Evelyn and Frank Stagg, Woman in the World of Jesus (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1978), 118–19, 140–41.

²³Luke 10:39.

²⁴Mishnah Aboth 1.4.

²⁵Acts 22:3.

²⁶1 Timothy 2:11.

²⁷Aida Besançon Spencer, Beyond the Curse (Nashville: Nelson, 1985), 59.

²⁸John 11:17–44.

²⁹Matthew 16:16.

³⁰It is remarkable that the verbal identity has been virtually overlooked by commentators. Leon Morris, while not mentioning the parallel, does underscore the theological significance of Martha’s words (Commentary on the Gospel of John. New International Commentary [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971], 551–52). Raymond E. Brown observes that her statement is “quite like” Peter’s confession (The Gospel According to John (I-III). Anchor Bible (Garden City: Doubleday, 1966), 425).

³¹Elizabeth M. Tetlow, Women and Ministry in the New Testament (New York: Paulist, 1980), 111.

³²Witherington, Women in the Ministry of Jesus, 109. Witherington points out, in response to critical scholars, that Martha’s response does not include all one might have expected if the conversation were totally editorial work on the author’s part rather than a true representation of what actually transpired. Martha’s answer does not specifically refer to the question Jesus asks in verse 26 (p. 106). He affirms that we have here “not an idealized portrait of two women disciples, but a portrait that indicates women are capable of faith and an accurate confession, and are worthy recipients of the teaching of Jesus.”

³³Matthew 1621–23.

³⁴John 12:3.

³⁵Matthew 26:12.

³⁶Matthew 26:13. The words of Jesus became the title of one of the most influential works on feminist biblical theology: Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her (New York: Crossroad, 1983).

³⁷Luke 8:1–3.

³⁸Matthew 1929; Mark 1029–30; Luke 1829–30; cf. Luke 1426.

³⁹Matthew 19:12.

⁴⁰Luke 7:12.

⁴¹Luke 7:36–50.

⁴²Luke 13:10–13.

⁴³Witherington, Women in the Ministry of Jesus, 71.

⁴⁴Luke 13:16. Witherington (Women in the Ministry of Jesus, 70) says that this term is never applied to an individual elsewhere in the Bible or in rabbinic literature.

⁴⁵Witherington, Women in the Ministry of Jesus, 70.

⁴⁶Mark 12:41–44; Luke 21:1–4

⁴⁷John 4:1–26, 39.

⁴⁸John 1720.

⁴⁹Raymond E. Brown, “Roles of Women in the Fourth Gospel,” Theological Studies 36 (1975): 691. See also the comments by Ben Witherington, Women in the Ministry of Jesus, 57–63.

⁵⁰Matthew 8:14–15; Mark 129–31; Luke 4:38–39.

⁵¹Witherington, Women in the Ministry of Jesus, 67.

⁵²Ibid., 68.

⁵³John 753–8:11. See Bruce M. Metzger, Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (London and New York: United Bible Societies, 1971), 219–22.

⁵⁴Matthew 9:18–26; Mark 521–43; Luke 8:40–56.

⁵⁵Cf. Leviticus 1525–39.

⁵⁶Janice Capel Anderson, “Matthew: Gender and Reading,” Semeia 28 (1983): 11.

⁵⁷Evans, Woman in the Bible, 51.

⁵⁸Anderson, “Matthew: Gender and Reading,” 14–15.

⁵⁹Matthew 1521–28; cf. 14:13–21; 1529–39; Mark 724–30; cf. 6:30–44; 8:1–13.

⁶⁰D. A. Carson, “Matthew,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, Frank E. Gaebelein, ed., 12 vols. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 8:355.

⁶¹Matthew 27:55–56.

⁶²Mark 15:40–41.

⁶³Luke 23:49.

⁶⁴Ibid.

⁶⁵John 1925–26.

⁶⁶This has long been taken as a technical term describing the rabbi-student relationship in the Talmud. It has also been claimed that it is a late term, mainly brought into the Gospel tradition after the time of Jesus. (H. D. Betz, Nachfolge und Nachahmung Jesu Christi im Neuen Testament [1967], discussed in Martin Hengel, The Charismatic Leader and His Followers, James Greig, trans. [New York: Crossroad, 1981], 84–86.) But no less a scholar than Martin Hengel has concluded, after an intensive study, that in the rabbinic tradition the idea of following refers concretely to the student walking after the teacher in a subordinate relationship, “without any more profound sense” (Martin Hengel, The Charismatic Leader, 52). Following after Jesus has “primarily the concrete sense of following him in his wanderings and sharing with him his uncertain and indeed perilous destiny and becoming his pupils only in a derivative sense” (p. 54, italics his). This direction of research makes it perilous to read too much into the fact that women “followed” Jesus. But at the same time, whatever limitations must be recognized will apply to both men and women “followers.” The more significant facts in this regard are that (1) no woman is ever called a “disciple” (mathētēs) and that (2) no women are included among the Twelve.

⁶⁷Mark 15:41.

⁶⁸Tetlow, Women and Ministry in the New Testament, 97.

⁶⁹Luke 2355–56.

⁷⁰Dorothy Pape, In Search of God’s Ideal Woman (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1976), 47–48.

⁷¹John 19:39.

⁷²Gilbert Bilezikian, Beyond Sex Roles (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1985), 104.

⁷³Evans, Woman in the Bible, 54.

⁷⁴Acts 4:13.

⁷⁵See Warren C. Trenchard, Ben Sira’s View of Women: A Literary Analysis, Brown Judaic Studies 38 (Chico, Calif.: Scholars, 1982).

⁷⁶Trenchard, Ben Sira’s View of Women, 19ff.

⁷⁷Ibid.

⁷⁸Ibid., 169.

⁷⁹Ibid., 58.

⁸⁰1 Timothy 2:14.

⁸¹Romans 5:12.

⁸²Genesis 3:16.

⁸³The former position has been taken by such Old Testament scholars as C. F. Keil and Franz Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament, vol. 1, Pentateuch (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1964), 103; E. J. Young, Genesis 3 (London: Banner of Truth Trust, 1966), 122–29. The latter interpretation has been expounded most clearly by Susan B. Foh, “What is the Woman’s Desire?” Westminster Theological Journal 37 (1974): 376–83; idem, Women and the Word of God: A Response to Biblical Feminism (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981), 67–69. A key issue is the meaning of the rare word teshukah, usually translated “desire.” Many think it indicates an inordinate dependence on, or sexual desire for, another. Foh interprets it in parallel with Genesis 4:7, where sin’s desire is for Cain, who should rule over it. She interprets the word according to Arabic etymology, which is now a questionable method linguistically. In my judgment, she fails to see the significance of the only other use of teshuka (Song of Songs 7:10). She understands its meaning there to be affected by the idea of possession (“I am my beloved’s”), whereas the point seems to be that it is the bridegroom, not the possessed bride, who has the “desire” for the other. The use of the word for the feelings of the male would seem to raise a question about the theory that in Genesis the word indicates competition for rulership, in spite of its use in 4:7. Also Foh understands the clauses in Genesis 3:16b to be antithetical because of the use of the pronoun and the vav. That is questionable. There is also an issue as to whether the whole statement is to be taken imperatively as a curse or whether it is essentially a declaration of consequences. In the latter case it is proper both to alleviate the fallen situation, as with medical help at childbirth (a controversy long since settled), and to seek an understanding as to how the redemptive work of Christ in believers’ lives modifies the distorted relationship between fallen man and fallen woman.

⁸⁴E.g., Sirach 26:7, “A bad [or evil] wife is a chafing yoke.” Statements like this are balanced by others, such as “A good wife is a generous gift” (26:3). See the translation by Bruce Vawter in The Book of Sirach, part 2 with commentary (New York: Paulist, 1962).

⁸⁵Trenchard, Ben Sira’s View of Women, 73.

⁸⁶Ibid., 79.

⁸⁷In the introduction to the published revision (1984) of his dissertation (1981) on women in the ministry of Jesus, Ben Witherington rejects the positive conclusions of R. Loewe, The Position of Women in Judaism (London: S.P.C.K., 1966), as well as those of George Foote Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, vols. 1 and 2 (New York: Schocken, 1971). On the other hand, he finds J. Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus Christ, trans. F. H. and C. H. Cave (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1969) and J. Bonsirven, Palestinian Judaism in the Time of Jesus Christ, trans. W. Wolf (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964) too negative. He does not comment at that point on the works we have referred to above by Swidler (1976, 1979), Stagg, or Biale, which were probably published too late for his use.

Leonard Swidler’s summary of the evidence is this: “Simply stated, the clear conclusion…is that in the formative period of Judaism the status of women was not one of equality with men, but rather, severe inferiority, and that even intense misogynism was not infrequently present…In drawing this conclusion…Judaism was not simply following the pattern of the societies and cultures around it. On the contrary, it appears to be running quite counter to the trends of at least the surrounding (Egyptian), Hellenistic, and Roman cultures” (Leonard Swidler, Women in Judaism [Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1967], 167).

The reason for gathering and dating these works at this point is to show something of the swing from one opinion to another and the fact that right up to the present the picture is not uniform. At the time of this writing, Witherington’s book is the most recent on the subject. His conclusion, after several brief but compact and well-documented pages is that “there was no monolithic entity…though it appears that by the first century of the Christian era a negative assessment was predominant among the rabbis” (p. 10).

⁸⁸Luke 15:11–32.

⁸⁹Luke 15:3–10.

⁹⁰Luke 18:1–8.

⁹¹Walter Bauer, William F. Amdt, F. Wilbur Gingrich, and Frederick W. Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 2d ed., revised and augmented (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1979), s.v. hypōpia-zō, 848.

⁹²Matthew 25:1–13.

⁹³Matthew 13:31–32, 33–35.

⁹⁴Matthew 12:42; Luke 11:31.

⁹⁵Bilezikian, Beyond Sex Roles, 86.

⁹⁶Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich, Danker, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 412.

⁹⁷Luke 17:34–35.

⁹⁸Witherington says that grinding was also done at night, just before dawn (p. 45).

⁹⁹Acts 1:15–26.

¹⁰⁰Pape, In Search, 47–49, quoting Ryrie, The Place of Women, 38.

¹⁰¹Dorothy L. Sayers, Are Women Human? (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), 47.

¹⁰²Tetlow, Women and Ministry, 103.

¹⁰³Luke 1:6.

¹⁰⁴E.g., Acts 2:17–18; 18:18–28.

¹⁰⁵Luke 19:10.

¹⁰⁶Luke 13:10–17.

¹⁰⁷Matthew 2:18, from Jeremiah 31:15.

¹⁰⁸Matthew 8:14–15; Mark 129–31; Luke 438–39.

¹⁰⁹Matthew 9:18–26; Mark 521–43; Luke 8:40–56.

¹¹⁰Matthew 14:3–12; Mark 6:17–29.

¹¹¹Matthew 1824–25.

¹¹²John 753–8:11. The overwhelming mass of manuscript evidence places it here or else omits it completely; two minuscules place it in Luke, one following 21:38, the other (a very late minuscule) following 2453. Were Luke looking for an incident that illustrated a woman’s sinfulness, this would have served well. The evidence that it was originally in his Gospel is too slight and too late to consider. Whether he knew of it is impossible even to conjecture.

¹¹³Matthew 21:31.

¹¹⁴Mark 12:41–44; Luke 21:1–4.

Chapter 2

¹The following are useful works on women in the classical world: Helene P. Foley, Reflections of Women in Antiquity (New York, London, Paris: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1981); Mary R. Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant, eds., Women’s Life in Greece and Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Sarah B. Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity (New York: Schocken, 1975).

²Pomeroy, Goddesses, 35–38.

³Ibid., 74.

⁴James Sigountos and Myron Shank, “Public Roles for Women in the Pauline Church: A Reappraisal of the Evidence,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 26 (1983): 283–95.

⁵This transition is described by Pomeroy, Goddesses, 93–148.

⁶J. P. V. D. Balsdon, Roman Women: Their History and Habits (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1962), 226–29.

⁷Livy, History of Rome 34.1–8, quoted in Mary R. Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant, eds., Women’s Life in Greece and Rome: A Source Book in Translation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 177.

⁸Susan Bell, ed., Women: From the Greek to the French Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973), 36.

⁹Balsdon, Roman Women, 77–78.

¹⁰Juvenal Satire VI, “The Ways of Women,” 83–136 (Loeb Translation).

¹¹Balsdon, Roman Women, 63.

¹²See Balsdon, Roman Women, 45–62, “Female Emancipation,” for examples of the situations described in this paragraph.

¹³On Musonius Rufus, see S. A. Cook, F. E. Adcock, and M. P. Charlesworth, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History, 11:752; on Seneca see Anna Lydia Motto, “Seneca on Women’s Liberation,” Classical World 65 (1972): 155–57; J. N. Sevenster, Paul and Seneca (Leiden: Brill, 1961), 192–96.

¹⁴Diodorus Siculus Library of History 127.1–2, quoted in David Balch, Wives Be Submissive: The Domestic Code in 1 Peter, Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series 26 (Chico, Calif.: Scholars, 1981), 71.

¹⁵Dio Cassius, Roman History 50.28.3, quoted in Balch, Wives Be Submissive, 71.

¹⁶Rachel Biale, Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women’s Issues in Halakhic Sources (New York: Schocken, 1984), 12.

¹⁷Biale, Women and Jewish Law, 17–24.

¹⁸Mishnah Sotah 3.4; B. Sotah 20a.

¹⁹Leonard Swidler, Women in Judaism: The Status of Women in Formative Judaism (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1976), 93–95.

²⁰Biale, Women and Jewish Law, 34.

²¹Sotah 3.4.

²²Jerusalem Talmud, Sotah 3:16a, quoted in Biale, Women and Jewish Law, 35.

²³B. Pesahim 62b.

²⁴B. Berakhoth 10a.

²⁵B. Shabbath 152a.

²⁶Tosephta Berakhoth 7, 8.

²⁷B. Berokhoth 13b.

²⁸B. Manakhoth 43b. See L. Swidler, Biblical Affirmations of Women (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1979), 155.

²⁹R. Kiddushin 7a. See Biale, Women and Jewish Law, 49.

³⁰Ben Witherington III, Women in the Ministry of Jesus, SNTS Monograph Series 51 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 3–4.

³¹Swidler, Women in Judaism, 159–60.

³²Such situations included the failure of the husband to consummate the marriage and unusual circumstances such as the husband’s occupation, contraction of leprosy, and inability to provide support. Witherington, Women in the Ministry of Jesus, 5.

³³Louis M. Epstein, Sex Laws and Customs in Judaism (New York: Ktav, 1967), 16, citing for these and other similar prohibitions Ber. 24a; 61a-b; ’Erub. 18b; Sab. 33a; 64b; Ket 17a; Ned. 20a; B.K. 16b; B.B. 55a; Gen. R. 60, 13; Der. Er. Ch. 1; Kallah, Ch. 1; Yer. Hal. 58c; Yer. Sotah 18c.

³⁴Bernadette J. Brooten, Women Leaders in the Ancient Synagogue, Brown Judaic Studies 36 (Chico, Calif.: Scholars, 1982), 5–33.

³⁵Brooten deals with this, though in my judgment she fails to meet the force of the objection. As for the actual evidence, of over thirty Greek and Latin inscriptions that refer to a head of a synagogue, ranging from 70 B.C. to the Byzantine period, only three (all in Greek) mention a woman. None is known prior to or during the life of Christ. Brooten understands a rare term, peristeria archēgisis, as possibly indicating the female founder of a Jewish community. Any connection this might have with New Testament times is not clarified; Brooten does not discuss dating. She cites six inscriptions that list women as elders. All are too late for our period except for one that she dates somewhere between the first century B.C. and the third century A.D. In that inscription the word presbytēs, could mean simply “aged woman,” though in one of the later inscriptions a woman so designated was only thirty-eight. Six inscriptions refer to a woman as mother of the synagogue. All are after the first century. There is one inscription, dated at 28 B.C., that refers to a woman priest. Not surprisingly this comes from Egypt, where women were far less restricted (apart from Philo’s opinion) than in Palestine. It also relates to one of the rare instances of a temple outside of Jerusalem.

³⁶Brooten, Women Leaders, 104–6.

³⁷Ibid., 107–8.

³⁸Pomeroy, Women in Hellenistic Egypt, 48–49.

³⁹Philo, The Special Laws, Book III, 169 (Loeb translation).

⁴⁰Philo, Questions on Genesis, Book IV, 15.

⁴¹Questions on Genesis, Book I, 33.

⁴²Josephus Antiquities 11.3.5.

⁴³Elizabeth M. Tetlow, Women and Ministry in the New Testament (Ramsey, N.J.: Paulist, 1980), 106–9.

⁴⁴W. M. Ramsay, St. Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen, 102, quoted in F. F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1954), 284.

⁴⁵For observations on these changes see Bruce M. Metzger, Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (London and New York: United Bible Societies, 1971), 453–54, 459–60.

⁴⁶Acts 16:1.

⁴⁷2 Timothy 1:5.

⁴⁸2 Timothy 3:15.

⁴⁹In Bernadette Brooten’s discussion of women active in synagogues (Women Leaders, 140), she understands proslambanō in Acts 1826 simply as “took,” inferring that Priscilla taught Apollos “in a synagogue context.” The Greek word strongly implies taking aside or even into one’s home.

⁵⁰Gillian Clark, “Roman Women,” Greece and Rome 28 (1981): 206–7.

⁵¹Philippians 4:3.

⁵²Colossians 4:15.

⁵³Romans 16:3; 1 Corinthians 16:19.

⁵⁴Peter Richardson, “From Apostles to Virgins: Romans 16 and the Roles of Women in the Early Church,” forthcoming article.

⁵⁵Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek English Lexicon, rev. by Henry Stuart Jones (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1940, with supplement, 1968), s.v. prostatis, 1527; cf. word group on 1526–27.

⁵⁶Liddell and Scott, Lexicon, s.v. thea, 786.

⁵⁷E. A. Judge, “Cultural Conformity and Innovation in Paul: Some Clues From Contemporary Documents,” Tyndale Bulletin 35 (1984): 21.

⁵⁸Origen, Epistolam ad Romanos Commentariorum 10.26; 39, cites early commentators who assumed Junia was a woman. John Chrysostom, Homily on the Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle to the Romans 31; Jerome, Liber Interpretationis Hebraicorum Nominum 72, 15. See the discussion in Aida Besançon Spencer, Beyond the Curse: Women Called to Ministry (Nashville: Nelson, 1985), 101–02. She also explains why the text means that Junia was considered outstanding among, rather than by, the apostles, as some contend.

⁵⁹C. E. B. Cranfield, The Epistles to the Romans, vol. 2, International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1979, 1983), 788.

⁶⁰Spencer, Beyond the Curse (Nashville: Nelson, 1985), 109–12.

⁶¹Livy, History of Rome 34, 1–8, quoted in Lefkowitz and Fant, Women’s Life in Greece and Rome, 177.

⁶²Plutarch, Moralia: Advice to Bride and Groom, 31.

⁶³Ibid., 32–33, 48.

⁶⁴Robert Banks, Paul’s Idea of Community (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 160, citing Plutarch, Advice on Marriage 19.32 and 48, and Seneca Ad Helvium 17.2–5.

⁶⁵Sirach 26:14.

⁶⁶Richard and Catherine Kroeger, “Sexual Identity in Corinth,” Reformed Journal 28 (1978): 12.

⁶⁷James B. Hurley, “Did Paul Require Veils or the Silence of Women? A Consideration of I Cor. 11:2–16 and I Cor. 14:33b-36,” Westminster Theological Journal 35 (1973): 190–220.

⁶⁸Kroeger, “Sexual Identity in Corinth,” 11–15.

⁶⁹Richard Kroeger and Catherine Kroeger, “Pandemonium and Silence at Corinth,” Reformed Journal 28 (June 1978): 11–15.

⁷⁰E. A. Judge, “Cultural Conformity and Innovation.”

⁷¹1 Corinthians 11:16.

⁷²1 Corinthians 14:40.

⁷³H. C. Kee, “The Linguistic Background of ‘Shame’ in the New Testament” in Matthew Black and W. A. Smalley, eds., On Language, Culture, and Religion (The Hague: Mouton, 1974), 135–47.

⁷⁴Richardson, “From Apostles to Virgins.”

⁷⁵1 Corinthians 920.

⁷⁶For this background, see David L. Balch, Let Wives Be Submissive: The Domestic Code in I Peter (Chico, Calif.: Scholars, 1981), 1–62, and David C. Verner, The Household of God: The Social World of the Pastoral Epistles, SBL Dissertation Series 71 (Chico, Calif.: Scholars, 1983), 1–81.

⁷⁷Balch, Wives Be Submissive, 63–121.

⁷⁸Two opposing views are found in Catherine Kroeger, “Ancient Heresies and a Strange Greek Verb,” Reformed Journal 29 (March 1979): 12–15, along with her article “1 Timothy 2:12—A Classicist’s View” in Alvera Mickelson, ed., Women, Authority and the Bible (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1986), 225–44; and George W. Knight III, “AUTHENTEO in Reference to Women in 1 Timothy 2:12,” New Testament Studies 30 (1984): 143–47.

⁷⁹See Sigountos and Shank, “Public Roles for Women,” 285–95.

⁸⁰Spencer, Beyond the Curse, 71–95.

⁸¹J. N. D. Kelly, A Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles (London: A. C. Black, 1963; reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981), 112.

⁸²A. T. Hanson, The Pastoral Epistles, New Century Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), 81.

⁸³Kelly, Pastoral Epistles, 83.

⁸⁴Hanson, Pastoral Epistles, 80.

Chapter 3

¹Patricia Wilson-Kastner et al, A Lost Tradition: Women Writers of the Early Church (New York and London: University Press of America, 1981).

²Some of the relevant studies are: Jean Daniélou, The Ministry of Women in the Early Church, trans. Glyn Simon (London: Faith, 1961); Roger Gryson, The Ministry of Women in the Early Church, trans. J. LaPorte and Mary Louise Hall (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical, 1976); Leonard Swidler and Arlene Swidler, eds., Women Priests: A Catholic Commentary on the Vatican Declaration (New York: Paulist, 1977); Haye van der Meer, S.J., Women Priests in the Catholic Church? trans. Leonard and Arlene Swidler (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1973).

³Edith Deen, Great Women of the Christian Faith (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959).

⁴Julia Kavanagh, Women of Christianity (1891), cited in Deen, Great Women, xvii.

⁵Elizabeth A. Clark, Women in the Early Church. Message of the Fathers of the Church, no. 13 (Wilmington: Glazier, 1983), 15.

⁶Agnes Cunningham, S.S.C.M., The Role of Women in Ecclesial Ministry (Monograph published by the United States Catholic Conference in 1976), 3.

⁷E. Margaret Howe, Women and Church Leadership (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1982), 83–104.

⁸Gryson, Ministry of Women, xi-xvi and passim.

⁹Daniélou, Ministry of Women, 14, quoting Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 4.3.

¹⁰Ibid., quoting Ignatius, To Smyrna, 13.1.

¹¹Stevan L. Davies, The Revolt of the Widows: The Social World of the Apocryphal Acts (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1980).

¹²Cunningham, Role of Women, 4.

¹³New Documents Illustrating the New Testament (North Ryde, Australia: Ancient History Document Centre, Macquarie University, 1978), section 79.

¹⁴Ibid.

¹⁵Dorothy Irwin, “The Ministry of Women in the Early Church: The Archaeological Evidence,” Duke Divinity School Review 45 (19801: 83.

¹⁶1 Clement 1:3. Kirsopp-Lake, trans., The Apostolic Fathers (New York: Putnam, 1912), 10–11.

¹⁷1 Clement 6:2.

¹⁸Epistle to the Philippians, chap. 4.

¹⁹1 Timothy 5:3–16.

²⁰Epistle to Polycarp, chap. 4.

²¹Ibid., chap. 5.

²²Ibid., chap. 7.

²³Ibid., chap. 8.

²⁴Eusebius Ecclesiastical History V.1.

²⁵Ibid.

²⁶Pliny to Trajan Letter X.96.

²⁷Daniélou, Ministry of Women, 15.

²⁸Patricia Wilson-Kastner in A Lost Tradition, ix.

²⁹Roger Gryson, Ministry of Women, 15.

³⁰Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.18. See also W. H. C. Frend, The Rise of Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), 148 and note 134 on p. 160; “Domitilla, Flavia” in F. L. Cross and E. A. Livingstone, eds., The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), 418–19.

³¹Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.22.4.

³²Similitudes 2.

³³Ibid.

³⁴Ibid.

³⁵See Gryson, Ministry of Women, 12.

³⁶Ibid., 13–14.

³⁷Tatian Address to the Greeks, 33.

³⁸Athenagoras A Plea for the Christians 32.

³⁹Ibid., 33.

⁴⁰Dialogue with Trypho, chap. 288; Ante-Nicene Fathers, 1242.

⁴¹Clement of Alexandria, The Instructor, book 2, chaps. 11–13.

⁴²Ibid., book 3, chap. 11.

⁴³Stromata (Miscellanies), book 2, chap. 12.

⁴⁴Ibid., book 4, chap. 8.

⁴⁵Ibid., chap. 11.

⁴⁶Ibid., chap. 23.

⁴⁷Clark, Women in the Early Church, 47.

⁴⁸Stromata 3, chap. 1, as quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 48–49.

⁴⁹Jean LaPorte, The Role of Women in Early Christianity: Studies in Women and Religion (Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellon, 1982), 7:30.

⁵⁰Stromata book 4.7–8, 19.

⁵¹The name Noria recurs in different spellings and contexts as daughter of Eve, Noah’s wife, a divine figure, and source of knowledge. “The Hypostasis of the Archons” (II, 4:91–92) and “The Thought of Norea” (IX, 227–29), Nag Hammadi Library, trans. the members of the Coptic Gnostic Library Project of the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, James M. Robinson, Director (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1977), 156, 404–5; and Irenaeus, Against Heresies I.XXX.9.

⁵²The gnostic Jesus taught women (see, e.g., “Sophia” [III.4:114–18] in The Nag Hammadi Library, 225), and women were commended for their understanding (e.g., “This word she spoke as a woman who knew the All.” “The Dialogue of the Savior” [III.5:139]; ibid., 235).

⁵³Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels (New York: Random, 1979), 48–69.

⁵⁴Ibid., 67.

⁵⁵“Gospel of Thomas,” (II.2), Logion 114, Nag Hammadi Library, 130. The text is cited by Pagels in her Gnostic Gospels, 49.

⁵⁶Concordia Journal 8 (1982): 12–18.

⁵⁷See “The Dialogue of the Savior” (III.5) in The Nag Hammadi Library, 229–38.

⁵⁸“The Gospel of Mary” (BG 8502.1), ibid., 471–74.

⁵⁹Irenaeus, Against Heresies I.XXIII.2.

⁶⁰Ibid., I.I.1.

⁶¹Ibid., I.IV.1.

⁶²Ibid., I.V.1.

⁶³Ibid., I.XIII.1–2.

⁶⁴Ibid., I.XII.3–5.

⁶⁵Ibid., I.XIII.4.

⁶⁶Ibid., I.XIII.5–6.

⁶⁷Ibid., I.XI.5.

⁶⁸Louis A. Brighton, “The Ordination of Women: A Twentieth-Century Gnostic Heresy?” Concordia Journal 8 (1982): 16.

⁶⁹Pagels, Gnostic Gospels, 62–63.

⁷⁰Quoted in LaPorte, Role of Women, 57.

⁷¹The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas, 5. The translation used here is that of Wilson-Kastner, 4 See also the selections in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 98–106, and in LaPorte, The Role of Women, 13–21.

⁷²Ibid., quoted from Wilson-Kastner, 30.

⁷³An excellent thesis on “Tertullian’s Understanding of Human Sexuality” was submitted as a master’s thesis to Trinity Evangelical Divinity School by Ernest B. Manges in 1975. It has a fine bibliography. Of particular interest are the works that “attempt to trace such dynamics as the history of the status of women or the history of misogyny or the roots of cultural sexual roles.” Some examples the author cites are: Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex (New York: Vintage, 1974), 110 and 189, which first appeared in French: Le Deuxième Sexe (Librairie Gallimard, 1949); Vern L. Bullough and Bonnie Bullough, The Subordinate Sex: A History of Attitudes Toward Women (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973), 114–15; Kathrine M. Rogers, The Troublesome Helpmate (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1966), 14–15; and Reay Tannahill, Sex in History (Briarcliff Manor, N.Y.: Stein and Day, 1980), 141, 146–47. Specific to the history of sexuality in the church (excluding the many works on the history of women in ministry) are: Derrick Sherwin Bailey, Sexual Relation in Christian Thought (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959), 20, 24; Mary Daly, The Church and the Second Sex (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), 87; and Rosemary Radford Ruether, “Misogynism and Virginal Feminism in the Fathers,” in Rosemary Radford Ruether, Religion and Sexism: Images of Women in the Jewish and Christian Traditions (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974), 157.

⁷⁴Gryson, Ministry of Women, 17.

⁷⁵Tertullian, On the Apparel of Women 1.1 (ANF 4:14).

⁷⁶Manges, “Tertullian’s Understanding,” 13.

⁷⁷On the Apparel of Women 2:1 (ANF 4:18).

⁷⁸On the Veiling of Virgins, chap. 3 (ANF 428–29).

⁷⁹De Corona, chap. 4 (ANF 3:95).

⁸⁰Ibid., chap. 6 (ANF 3:96).

⁸¹Ibid., chap 14 (ANF 3:102).

⁸²To His Wife 1.1 (ANF 4:40).

⁸³Ibid. (ANF 4:43).

⁸⁴On Exhortation to Chastity, chap. 1 (ANF 4:50).

⁸⁵Against Marcion 1.29; V.7 (ANF 3293–94; 443).

⁸⁶Ernest B. Manges, Tertullian, 112–25.

⁸⁷Manges, 121.

⁸⁸Tertullian Against Marcion, V.8 (ANF 3:445) See the discussion of this by Ruth A. Tucker in Women, Authority and the Bible, Alvera Mickelsen, ed. (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1986), 113. The key clause is “auctoritas autem non alterius erit quam auctoris,” literally: “Now [or “however” or “but”] authority will not be other than of the originator.” This is somewhat ambiguous and needs to be interpreted with reference to the whole context.

⁸⁹Ibid. V.8 (ANF 3:446).

⁹⁰On Baptism, chap. 1 (ANF 3:677).

⁹¹On the Veiling of Virgins, chap. 3 (ANF 4:33).

⁹²Ibid., chap. 7 (ANF 4:31).

⁹³See the discussion and quotations in Gryson, Ministry of Women, 19.

⁹⁴Tertullian, On Prescription Against Heretics, chap. 6 (ANF 3:246).

⁹⁵Ibid., chap. 30 (ANF 3:257).

⁹⁶Ibid., chap. 41263 (ANF 3263).

⁹⁷Origen, Fragments on 1 Corinthians, 74, quoted in Gryson, Ministry of Women, 28–29.

⁹⁸Origen, Commentary on Romans, 10, 17, quoted in Gryson, Ministry of Women, 31.

⁹⁹Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, “Word, Spirit and Power: Women in Early Christian Communities,” in Rosemary Ruether and Eleanor McLaughlin, eds., Women of Spirit: Female Leadership in the Jewish and Christian Traditions (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 56.

¹⁰⁰Origen, On Song, 1.1 as quoted in Jean LaPorte, The Role of Women, 140.

¹⁰¹Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies, VIII.19, as quoted by Elizabeth A. Clark, in Women in the Early Church, Wilmington: Glazier, 1983), 161.

¹⁰²Hippolytus, Apostolic Tradition, XIII, quoted in LaPorte, The Role of Women, from G. Dix, The Apostolic Tradition ofHypolytus (London, 1968), 70.

¹⁰³Ibid., XI.1.4.5 quoted in LaPorte, The Role of Women, 59, from Dix, The Apostolic Tradition, 20.

¹⁰⁴Gryson, Ministry of Women, 24.

¹⁰⁵Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies, VII (ANF 5:129–30).

¹⁰⁶Kurt Aland, A History of Christianity 1, trans. James L. Schaaf (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985), 59; W. H. C. Frend, The Rise of Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), 561–62.

¹⁰⁷Frend, The Rise of Christianity, 562.

¹⁰⁸Cyprian Epistle LXI, To Pomponius, Concerning Some Virgins (ANF 5:356–58; On the Dress of Virgins (ANF 5:430–36); Head 36 (ANF 5:544). Cyprian also argued on the bases of 1 Corinthians 14:34–35 and 1 Timothy 2:11–14 that women ought to be silent in the church. He quoted these verses but did not comment on them.

¹⁰⁹Fiorenza, “Word, Spirit and Power,” 55.

¹¹⁰Quoted in Daniélou, Ministry of Women in the Early Church, 11.

¹¹¹LaPorte, The Role of Women, 60–64 on widows, and 111–14 on deaconesses.

¹¹²Didascalia 3.13.1.

¹¹³Ibid., 3.12.1–13.1.

¹¹⁴Gryson, Ministry of Women, 42.

¹¹⁵Mary Lawrence McKenna, S.C.M.M., Women of the Church (New York: McKenna, n.d.), 66. Cf. pages 64–93 for a general survey of deaconesses in the early church.

¹¹⁶Haye van der Meer, Women Priests in the Catholic Church? 87.

¹¹⁷Ibid., 86–87.

¹¹⁸Charles R. Meyer, “Ordained Women in the Early Church,” Chicago Studies (1965) 4:302.

¹¹⁹Chaps. 14–15, quoted in LaPorte, The Role of Women, 60–64; see also Daniélou, Ministry of Women, 19.

¹²⁰Gryson, Ministry of Women, 39.

¹²¹Dionysius, “Epistle to Bishop Basilides,” Canon II. (ANF 6:96).

¹²²Howe, Women and Church Leadership, 99.

¹²³Palladius, Lausiac History 55, quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 133.

¹²⁴LaPorte, The Role of Women, 71.

¹²⁵Ibid., 103.

¹²⁶The Banquet of the Ten Virgins, Discourse 1.2 (ANF VI 3.11).

¹²⁷Ibid.

¹²⁸Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, VI.41.

¹²⁹Ibid., VI.41.

¹³⁰Ibid.

¹³¹Ibid., VIII.12.

¹³²Ibid., VI.5.

¹³³Ibid., VIII.14.

¹³⁴Ibid.

¹³⁵Ibid.

¹³⁶Ibid., IV.17.

¹³⁷Ibid., V.13.1–2.

¹³⁸History, V.14.1; V.16.12–22; V.17.4.

¹³⁹Ibid., V.18.3.

¹⁴⁰The edition of John Foxe, Foxe’s Book of Martyrs used here is that by J. Milner (London: Thynne and Jarvis, n.d.).

¹⁴¹Ibid., 30–31, 33.

¹⁴²Ibid., 44–45.

¹⁴³Ibid., 48–49.

¹⁴⁴Ibid., 56–59.

¹⁴⁵Ibid., 66–68.

¹⁴⁶Ibid., 69–70, 72–73, 77.

¹⁴⁷Peter Toon, “Epiphanius,” in J. D. Douglas, rev. ed., The New International Dictionary of the Chrisitian Church (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978), 346.

¹⁴⁸Quoted in Daniélou, The Ministry of Women in the Early Church, 25.

¹⁴⁹Excerpted from the quotation in Wilson-Kastner, A Lost Tradition, 45–68.

¹⁵⁰Jerome Epistle 127.2–7, as quoted in Clarke, Women in the Early Church, 205–8.

¹⁵¹Ibid., 208.

¹⁵²Ibid., 127.10, as quoted in Clarke, Women in the Early Church, 163.

¹⁵³Epistle 108.5–6, 26, quoted in LaPorte, The Role of Women, 88–90, and in A. Clarke, Women in the Early Church, 209–13.

¹⁵⁴For a brief sketch of her life, see Rosemary Ruether, “Mothers of the Church: Ascetic Women in the Late Patristic Age” in Rosemary Ruether and Eleanor McLaughlin, eds., Women of Spirit: Female Leadership in the Jewish and Christian Traditions (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979, 83–85. For full details in the early sources, see the following footnote.

¹⁵⁵Palladius, Lausiac History 55, quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 164–65. See also the excerpts from Palladius on pages 213–16 and 221–23 of the same work.

¹⁵⁶Epistle 29, quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 217.

¹⁵⁷Palladius, Lausiac History, 55, quoted by Rosemary Ruether, “Mothers of the Church: Ascetic Women in the Late Patristic Age” in Ruether and McLaughlin, Women of Spirit, 87.

¹⁵⁸Rosemary Ruether, “Mothers of the Church,” 91.

¹⁵⁹Palladius, Lausiac History, quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 223.

¹⁶⁰Life of Olympias, Deaconess, quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 227.

¹⁶¹For a summary of the career of Olympias, see McKenna, Women of the Church, 84–89.

¹⁶²Gregory of Nyssa, Life of St. Macrina, 1.6, quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 235–43. See also LaPorte, The Role of Women, 81–88.

¹⁶³LaPorte, Role of Women, 100–101.

¹⁶⁴On Virginity, 14.1. See Clark, Women in the Early Church, 118–22.

¹⁶⁵Gryson, Ministry of Women, 46–48.

¹⁶⁶Canons of Hippolytus 9, quoted in Gryson, Ministry of Women, 50.

¹⁶⁷Apostolic Constitutions VIII.19–20.

¹⁶⁸Ibid., VIII.24.

¹⁶⁹Ibid., I.3.

¹⁷⁰Ibid., III.5.

¹⁷¹Ibid., III.6.

¹⁷²Ibid., III.7.

¹⁷³Ibid., III.9.

¹⁷⁴Ibid.

¹⁷⁵Ibid., III.10.

¹⁷⁶Ibid., III.11.

¹⁷⁷Augustine, Confessions 2.3.

¹⁷⁸Ibid., 8.12.

¹⁷⁹Ibid., 3.11–12.

¹⁸⁰Ibid., 9.10–12.

¹⁸¹Augustine, Literal Commentary on Genesis IX.5.

¹⁸²Ambrose, On Paradise X.48.

¹⁸³Augustine, The City of God XIV.26

¹⁸⁴On the Sermon on the Mount 1.15.41, as quoted in Elizabeth A. Clark, Women in the Early Church, 65.

¹⁸⁵Rosemary Ruether, Liberation Theology: Human Hope Confronts Christian History and American Power (New York: Paulist, 1972), 100.

¹⁸⁶John Chrysostom, Homily XX.

¹⁸⁷John Chrysostom, Discourse 4 on Genesis 1.2.

¹⁸⁸John Chrysostom, The Kind of Women Who Ought to Be Taken as Wives, IV, quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 37.

¹⁸⁹John Chrysostom, Discourse 4 on Genesis, as quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 44.

¹⁹⁰Homily 9 on 1 Timothy, as quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 15, 157–58.

¹⁹¹John Chrysostom, Greet Priscilla and Aquila 1.3, as quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 159.

¹⁹²John Chrysostom, Homily 7 on Matthew, 6.

¹⁹³Ibid.

¹⁹⁴John Chrysostom, The Epistle to the Romans, 31, quoted in Aída Besancon Spencer, Beyond the Curse (Nashville: Nelson, 1985), 101, 132.

¹⁹⁵Rosamond Nugent, Portrait of the Consecrated Woman in Greek Christian Literature of the First Four Centuries (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University Press, 1941), 62–64.

¹⁹⁶See On the Priesthood III.17.

¹⁹⁷John Chrysostom, Homily on I Corinthians 7:2, as quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 64.

¹⁹⁸Ibid., 72–73

¹⁹⁹John Chrysostom, Homily 19 on I Corinthians.

²⁰⁰Quoted in Henry Alford, The New Testament for English Readers (Chicago: Moody, n.d.), 1243–44.

²⁰¹John Chrysostom, On Virginity 15.1, as quoted in Clark, Women in the Early Church, 124.

²⁰²On the Necessity of Guarding Virginity.

²⁰³Exhortation to Chastity, IX.

²⁰⁴John Chrysostom, On Not Marrying Again.

²⁰⁵Clark, Jerome, Chrysostom and Friends (Champaign, III.: University of Illinois Press, 1982).

²⁰⁶Ibid., 48–59.

Chapter 4

¹Eleanor McLaughlin, “Women, Power and the Pursuit of Holiness in Medieval Christianity,” in Women of Spirit: Female Leaders in the Jewish and Christian Traditions, ed. Rosemary Ruether and Eleanor McLaughlin (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 101.

²Ibid., 102.

³Marlys Taege, And God Gave Women Talents! (St. Louis: Concordia, 1978), 86.

⁴Susanne F. Wemple, Women in Frankish Society: Marriage and the Cloister, 500 to 900 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 141; Taege, And God Gave Women Talents! 86.

⁵Will Durant, The Age of Faith (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1950), 896.

⁶Joan Morris, The Lady Was a Bishop: The Hidden History of Women With Clerical Ordination and the Jurisdiction of Bishops (New York: Macmillan, 1973), 110.

⁷Ibid., 110–11.

⁸Susan M. Stuard, ed. Women in Medieval Society (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1976), 9.

⁹Wemple, Women in Frankish Society, 139.

¹⁰Ibid., 140; Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. 3, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity, A.D. 311–600 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), 259–60.

¹¹Quoted in Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 3260–61.

¹²Wemple, Women in Frankish Society, 141; Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 3:259, 262–63.

¹³Wemple, Women in Frankish Society, 133, 159.

¹⁴Lina Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism (New York: Russell & Russell, 1896), 48.

¹⁵Wemple, Women in Frankish Society, 163.

¹⁶Frances and Joseph Gies, Women in the Middle Ages (New York: Crowell, 1978), 65; Susan G. Bell, ed. Women: From the Greeks to the French Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973), 96; Durant, Age of Faith, 805.

¹⁷Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism, 67–68.

¹⁸Ibid., 69.

¹⁹Nancy Hardesty, Great Women of the Christian Faith (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980), 37; Joan M. Ferrante, “The Education of Women” in Beyond Their Sex, 9.

²⁰Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism, 93.

²¹Wemple, Women in Frankish Society, 193.

²²Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism, 128, 135, 138; Hardesty, Great Women, 35.

²³Edith Deen, Great Women of the Christian Faith (New York: Harper & Row, 1959), 307; McLaughlin, “Women, Power and the Pursuit of Holiness,” 105.

²⁴McLaughlin, “Women, Power and the Pursuit of Holiness,” 106.

²⁵Ibid., 107.

²⁶Wemple, Women in Frankish Society, 168, 170–71.

²⁷Bell, Women, 97; Stuard, Women in Medieval Society, 8.

²⁸Quoted in Wemple, Women in Frankish Society, 145.

²⁹Ibid., 145.

³⁰Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. 5, The Middle Ages, A.D. 1049–1294, 266–68.

³¹Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Supplement, 64, 6, ad 1, quoted in Eleanor McLaughlin, “Equality of Souls, Inequality of Sexes: Woman in Medieval Theology,” in Rosemary Ruether, Religion and Sexism: Images of Woman in the Jewish and Christian Traditions (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974), 226–27.

³²David Herlihy, “Land, Family, and Women in Continental Europe, 701–1200,” in Stuard, Women in Medieval Society, 25.

³³Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. 4, Medieval Christianity, A.D. 590–1073, 265; Peter Toon, “Joan, Pope,” in J. D. Douglas, ed., New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978), 536.

³⁴Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 4:265.

³⁵R. W. Southern, Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages (New York: Penguin, 1970), 310.

³⁶Gies, Women in the Middle Ages, 64.

³⁷Laurel Braswell, “Saint Edburga of Winchester: A Study of Her Cult, A.D. 950–1500,” Medieval Studies, (1971), 23:310.

³⁸Durant, Age of Faith, 805; Bell, Women, 97. So it is not unreasonable to assume that a significant number of women were either forced to be at convents or were there as a last resort. By the same token, some women—particularly young noblewomen—found the intellectual stimulation and independence of convent life more appealing than the prospects of an arranged marriage.

³⁹Gies, Women in the Middle Ages, 70.

⁴⁰Durant, The Age of Faith, 807; Gies, Women in the Middle Ages, 65.

⁴¹Caroline W. Bynum, Jesus as Mother: Studies in the Spirituality of the High Middle Ages (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 14; Gies, Women in the Middle Ages, 64; Durant, Age of Faith, 757.

⁴²Mclaughlin, “Equality of Souls,” in Religion and Sexism, 238.

⁴³Brenda M. Bolton, “Mulieres Sanctae” in Stuard, Women in Medieval Society, 143.

⁴⁴Ibid., 142; Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:368–69.

⁴⁵McLaughlin, “Equality of Souls,” 239.

⁴⁶Bolton, “Mulieres Sanctae,” 142.

⁴⁷Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism, 184; Bell, Women, 96.

⁴⁸McLaughlin, “Women, Power and the Pursuit of Holiness, 106; Mary Daly, The Church and the Second Sex (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), 54.

⁴⁹“Abbesses,” Dictionaire de Theologie Catholique, vol. 1, col. 18, quoted in Daly, The Church and the Second Sex, 54.

⁵⁰Durant, Age of Faith, 805.

⁵¹Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism, 204.

⁵²Morris, The Lady Was a Bishop, 19, 55.

⁵³Bell, Women, 97.

⁵⁴Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism, 356.

⁵⁵Durant, Age of Faith, 515.

⁵⁶Quoted in Gies, Women in the Middle Ages, 67.

⁵⁷Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism, 181.

⁵⁸Bell, Women, 108.

⁵⁹Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism, 238–39.

⁶⁰Morris, The Lady Was a Bishop, 91.

⁶¹Durant, Age of Faith, 806.

⁶²Nesta de Robeck, St. Clare of Assisi (Chicago: Franciscan Herald, 1980), 162.

⁶³Donald Weinstein and Rudolph M. Bell, Saints & Society: The Two Worlds of Western Christendom, 1000–1700 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 156.

⁶⁴Rudolph M. Bell, Holy Anorexia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), passim.

⁶⁵Braswell, “Saint Edburga of Winchester,” 301–2.

⁶⁶Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society, 220; Bynum, Jesus as Mother, 137.

⁶⁷Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society, 177, 107.

⁶⁸Durant, Age of Faith, 806–7.

⁶⁹Ibid., 806; Bynum, Jesus as Mother, 18.

⁷⁰Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:371.

⁷¹Quoted in Deen, Great Women of the Christian Faith, 310.

⁷²Quoted in Henry Osborn Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1949), 466–67.

⁷³Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:372.

⁷⁴Quoted in Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, 470–71.

⁷⁵Bynum, Jesus as Mother, 174–81.

⁷⁶Ibid., 181, 194.

⁷⁷Ibid., 197.

⁷⁸Ibid., 172–3.

⁷⁹Ibid., 184.

⁸⁰George Williams and Edith Waldvogel, “A History of Speaking in Tongues and Related Gifts,” in Michael P. Hamilton, ed., The Charismatic Movement (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 70.

⁸¹Morris, The Lady Was a Bishop, 12.

⁸²Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society, 155.

⁸³Edmund College and James Walsh, “Editing Julian of Norwich’s Revelations: A Progress Report,” Medieval Studies (1976) 38:421.

⁸⁴Jennifer P. Heimmel, “God Is Our Mother”: Julian of Norwich and the Medieval Image of Christian Feminine Divinity (Salzburg: University of Salzburg Press, 1952), 48.

⁸⁵McLaughlin, “Women, Power and the Pursuit of Holiness,” 108–11.

⁸⁶Ibid., 112.

⁸⁷Deen, Great Women of the Christian Faith, 316; Elizabeth Clark and Herbert Richardson, eds., Women and Religion: A Feminist Sourcebook of Christian Thought (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 107.

⁸⁸Bolton, “Mulieres Sanctae,” in Stuard, Women in Medieval Society, 150–52.

⁸⁹Bynum, Jesus as Mother, 14.

⁹⁰McLaughlin, “Equality of Souls,” in Religion and Sexism, 242, 251–52.

⁹¹Ibid., 244.

⁹²Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:399.

⁹³Quoted in de Robeck, St Clare, 40, 84–85.

⁹⁴Ibid, 103.

⁹⁵St. Francis, Little Flowers of St. Francis (New York: Dutton, 1947), 62.

⁹⁶Michael De La Bedoyere, Catherine: Saint of Siena (London: Hollis and Carter, 1947).

⁹⁷Weinstein and Bell, Saints & Society, 39.

⁹⁸Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 6:195; De La Bedoyere, Catherine, 29, 33.

⁹⁹Quoted in De La Bedoyere, Catherine, 40.

¹⁰⁰De La Bedoyere, Catherine, 41, 44.

¹⁰¹Ibid., 46.

¹⁰²Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 6:196.

¹⁰³Quoted in De La Bedoyere, Catherine, 56–57.

¹⁰⁴De La Bedoyere, Catherine, 136–40.

¹⁰⁵Ibid., 140, 236.

¹⁰⁶Quoted in ibid., 186.

¹⁰⁷McLaughlin, “Women, Power and the Pursuit of Holiness,” 117.

¹⁰⁸De La Bedoyere, Catherine, 240.

¹⁰⁹Quoted in McLaughlin, “Women, Power and Pursuit of Holiness,” 119.

¹¹⁰Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 6204.

¹¹¹Ibid., 199.

¹¹²Ibid., 109.

¹¹³Bynum, Jesus as Mother, 14–15; Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:490.

¹¹⁴Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:490.

¹¹⁵Robert E. Lerner, The Heresy of the Free Spirit in the Later Middle Ages (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), 45.

¹¹⁶Ibid., 46.

¹¹⁷McLaughlin, “Women, Power and the Pursuit of Holiness,” 124.

¹¹⁸Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:500–504.

¹¹⁹Ibid., 177, 476.

¹²⁰Ibid., 509, 511.

¹²¹Rudolph Heinze, “Taborites,” in the New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 951; Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 6:393.

¹²²Durant, Age of Faith, 973.

¹²³Ibid., 826.

¹²⁴Francine Cardman, “The Medieval Question of Women and Orders,” The Thomist (October 1978), 42:586–91.

¹²⁵Ibid., 596.

¹²⁶126Emma T. Healy, Woman According to Saint Bonaventure (New York: Georgian, 1956), i–ii, 46.

¹²⁷Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 6:524.

¹²⁸Ibid., 525–26.

¹²⁹Quoted in Durant, Age of Faith, 986.

¹³⁰Ibid., 986.

¹³¹Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:611–12.

¹³²Quoted in ibid., 612.

¹³³Ibid., 614–15.

¹³⁴Quoted in Durant, Age of Faith, 943.

¹³⁵Bell, Women, 97.

¹³⁶Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:531–32.

¹³⁷Durant, Age of Faith, 806.

¹³⁸Ibid.

¹³⁹Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:837–38.

¹⁴⁰Ibid., 831, 840, 842.

¹⁴¹McLaughlin, “Equality of Souls,” in Religion and Sexism, 246–54.

¹⁴²Durant, The Age of Faith, 747.

¹⁴³Quoted in Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5:832.

¹⁴⁴Durant, Age of Faith, 826.

¹⁴⁵Ibid., 505.

¹⁴⁶Bell, Women, 159.

¹⁴⁷de Robeck, St. Clare, 102, 111.

Chapter 5

¹Natalie Z. Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975), 76–77.

²Roland H. Bainton, Erasmus of Christendom (New York: Scribner, 1969), 22–23.

³Jane D. Douglass, “Christian Freedom: What Calvin Learned at the School of Women,” Church History, 53 (June 1984): 167.

⁴Julia O’Faolain and Lauro Martines, eds., Not in God’s Image (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 180.

⁵Charmarie J. Blaisdell, “Response to ‘The Role and Status of Women in the Writings of John Calvin,’” in Peter De Klerk, ed., Renaissance, Reformation, Resurgence (Grand Rapids: Calvin Theological Seminary, 1976), 21.

⁶O’Faolain and Martines, Not in God’s Image, 194.

⁷Martin Luther, Notes on Ecclesiastes in Jaroslav Pelikan, ed., Luther’s Works (St. Louis: Concordia, 1972), 15:130.

⁸Martin Luther, The Christian in Society, in Helmut T. Lehmann, ed., Luther’s Works (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1962), 45:37.

⁹Quoted in Will Durant, The Reformation: A History of European Civilization from Wycliffe to Calvin, 1300–1564 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957), 416.

¹⁰Quoted in O’Faolain and Martines, Not in God’s Image, 196–97.

¹¹Quoted in Ian Siggins, Luther and His Mother (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981), 73.

¹²Luther, Christian in Society, 2:368.

¹³Joyce L. Irwin, Womanhood in Radical Protestantism, 1525–1675 (New York: Mellen, 1979), 128.

¹⁴Martin Luther, Luther’s Commentary on Genesis, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1958), 1:34.

¹⁵Ibid., 55.

¹⁶Martin Luther, “The Babylonian Captivity of the Church,” in Primary Works, trans. and ed. by H. Wace and C. A. Buchheim (London, 1896), 103–4, quoted in O’Faolain and Martines, Not in God’s Image, 195.

¹⁷Quoted in Irwin, Womanhood, 159.

¹⁸Luther, Church and Ministry, 2:154.

¹⁹Constance M. Coltman, “Post-Reformation: The Free Churches” in A. Maude Royden, The Church and Woman (New York: Doran, 1924), 83.

²⁰Charmarie J. Blaisdell, “Calvin’s Letters to Women: The Courting of Ladies in High Places,” Sixteenth Century Journal 13 (Fall 1982): 67–71.

²¹Willis P. DeBoer, “Calvin on the Role of Women,” in David E. Holwerda, ed., Exploring the Heritage of John Calvin (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1976), 236–72; Douglass, “Christian Freedom,” 155–73.

²²Douglass, “Christian Freedom,” 156, 158.

²³Ibid., 158–59.

²⁴Quoted in ibid., 162.

²⁵Douglass, “Christian Freedom,” 166.

²⁶Ibid., 157.

²⁷John Calvin, Commentaries on the Gospel of John, trans. William Pringle (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1956), 260–61.

²⁸David Laing, ed. The Works of John Knox (Edinburgh: Stevenson, 1855), 4:351, 357–58.

²⁹John Knox, “The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women” (1558) in Laing, ed., Works, 4:365.

³⁰Ibid., 374, 377.

³¹Roland H. Bainton, Women of the Reformation From Spain to Scandanavia (Austin: Augsburg, n.d.), 91.

³²Irwin, Womanhood, 49.

³³John Cairncross, After Polygamy Was Made a Sin: The Social History of Christian Polygamy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974), 25, 9.

³⁴Quoted in ibid., 9.

³⁵Irwin, Womanhood, 55.

³⁶Menno Simons, The True Christian Faith, from John C. Wenger, ed., The Complete Writings of Menno Simons (c. 1496–1561), trans. Leonard Verduin (Scottsdale, Pa.: Herald, 1956), 376–83, quoted in Irwin, Womanhood, 55.

³⁷Irwin, Womanhood, 202–3.

³⁸Quoted in Douglass, “Christian Freedom,” 172.

³⁹Bainton, Women of the Reformation From Spain to Scandanavia,…in France and England,…in Germany and Italy.

⁴⁰Susan C. Karant-Nunn, “Continuity and Change: Some Effects of the Reformation on the Women of Zwickau,” Sixteenth Century Journal, 12 (Summer 1982): 35.

⁴¹Richard Friedenthal, Luther: His Life and Times, trans. John Nowell (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970), 437.

⁴²Roland H. Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (New York: Mentor, 1950), 223.

⁴³Quoted in Roland H. Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1971), 24.

⁴⁴Friedenthal, Luther, 438.

⁴⁵Quoted in Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), 8:417.

⁴⁶Quoted in Theodore J. Kleinhans, Martin Luther, Saint and Sinner (London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1959), 105.

⁴⁷Quoted in Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy, 27.

⁴⁸Quoted in Friedenthal, Luther, 439–40.

⁴⁹Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy, 45–50.

⁵⁰Quoted in ibid., 51–52.

⁵¹Quoted in O’Faolain and Martines, eds., Not in God’s Image, 204.

⁵²Mariam V. Chrisma, “Women of the Reformation in Strasburg, 1490–1530,” Archive for Reformation History (1972), 63:152–53.

⁵³Quoted in Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy, 55.

⁵⁴Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 7:633.

⁵⁵Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy, 65, 73.

⁵⁶Quoted in ibid., 66–67.

⁵⁷Quoted in ibid., 72.

⁵⁸Quoted in ibid.

⁵⁹Chrisma, “Women in Reformation Strasburg,” 157–58.

⁶⁰Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy, 84.

⁶¹Ibid., 97, 100, 105.

⁶²Ibid., 97–98.

⁶³Quoted in ibid., 97.

⁶⁴Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy, 107.

⁶⁵Ibid., 105.

⁶⁶Ibid., 105–6.

⁶⁷Quoted in ibid., 106.

⁶⁸Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy, 108.

⁶⁹Blaisdell, “Calvin’s Letters to Women,” 74–75.

⁷⁰Quoted in Bainton, Women of the Reformation in France and England, 29.

⁷¹Quoted in Douglass, “Christian Freedom,” 169.

⁷²Bainton, Women of the Reformation in France and England, 25.

⁷³Nancy Roelker, “The Appeal of Calvinism to French Noblewomen of the Sixteenth Century,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2 (Spring 1972): 408.

⁷⁴Bainton, Women of the Reformation in France and England, 54.

⁷⁵Quoted in Ibid., 60–61.

⁷⁶Bainton, Women of the Reformation in England and France, 62–69; Nancy Hardesty, Great Women of the Christian Faith (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980), 54.

⁷⁷Blaisdell, “Calvin’s Letters to Women,” 78.

⁷⁸Roelker, “The Appeal of Calvinism,” 408.

⁷⁹Quoted in Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy, 241.

⁸⁰Blaisdell, “Calvin’s Letters to Women,” 80.

⁸¹Charmarie Jenkins-Blaisdell, “Renée de France Between Reform and Counter-Reform,” Archive for Reformation History 63 (1972): 198.

⁸²Bainton, Women in the Reformation in Germany and Italy, 246, 248–49.

⁸³Quoted in ibid., 247, 249.

⁸⁴John Foxe, Foxe’s Christian Martyrs of the World (Chicago: Moody, n.d.), 542–46.

⁸⁵Ibid., 511, 521–22.

⁸⁶Ibid., 404.

⁸⁷Ibid., 405.

⁸⁸Ann Askewe, The First Examination of the Worthy seruant of God, Mistress Anne Askew…lately Martyred in Smithfield (London: Robert Waldegraue, 1585), 3–4.

⁸⁹Bainton, Women of the Reformation in France and England, 247.

⁹⁰Ibid., 10–11.

⁹¹George Huntston Williams, The Radical Reformation (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962), 184, 506–7.

⁹²Johannes Kessler, Sabbata, ed. Emil Egli and Rudolf Schoch (St. Gall, 1902), 154, quoted in Irwin, Womanhood, 203.

⁹³Ibid., 204–5.

⁹⁴Karant-Nunn, “Continuity and Change,” 37–40.

⁹⁵Quoted in Bainton, Women in the Reformation From Spain to Scandanavia, 163.

⁹⁶Ibid., 28–29.

⁹⁷Ibid., 29–30.

⁹⁸Ibid., 29–31.

⁹⁹Ibid., 34–37.

¹⁰⁰Ibid., 37–39.

¹⁰¹Douglass, “Christian Freedom,” 169–70.

¹⁰²Roelker, “Appeal of Calvinism,” 407.

¹⁰³Karant-Nunn, “Continuity and Change,” 19.

¹⁰⁴Ibid., 28.

¹⁰⁵Jane D. Douglass, “Women and the Continental Reformation” in Rosemary Ruether, Religion and Sexism: Images of Women in the Jewish and Christian Traditions (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974), 310.

¹⁰⁶Quoted in ibid., 310–11.

¹⁰⁷Quoted in Lina Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism (New York: Russell and Russell, 1896), 471.

¹⁰⁸Karant-Nunn, “Continuity and Change,” 22–23.

¹⁰⁹Quoted in Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism, 463, 465.

¹¹⁰Ibid., 467.

¹¹¹Eckenstein, Woman Under Monasticism, 470–71, 473.

¹¹²Ibid., 475.

¹¹³Blaisdell, “Calvin’s Letters to Women,” 73.

¹¹⁴Hugo Rahner, Saint Ignatius Loyola: Letters to Women (London: Nelson, 1956), 12, 14n, 19.

¹¹⁵Ibid., 18.

¹¹⁶Denise L. Carmody, Women and World Religions (Nashville: Abingdon, 1979), 132.

¹¹⁷Quoted in Victoria Lincoln, Teresa: A Woman, A Biography of Teresa of Avila (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984), 37, 40.

¹¹⁸Ibid., 49.

¹¹⁹Ibid., 52.

¹²⁰Stephen Clissold, St Teresa of Avila (New York: Seabury, 1982), 56.

¹²¹Ibid., 67, 195.

¹²²Edith Deen, Great Women of the Christian Faith (New York: Harper & Row, 1959), 100–101.

¹²³Quoted in Caroline Marshall, “Teresa of Avila” in Eerdmans’ Handbook to the History of Christianity, ed. Tim Dowley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), 417.

¹²⁴Deen, Great Women, 102–7.

¹²⁵Quoted in Bainton, Women of the Reformation from Spain to Scandanavia, 56.

¹²⁶Quoted in Clissold, St Teresa, 113.

¹²⁷Bainton, Women of the Reformation from Spain to Scandanavia, 56–57.

¹²⁸Quoted in Deen, Great Women, 102.

¹²⁹Quoted in Hugo Rahner, Saint Ignatius, 25.

¹³⁰Ibid., 25.

¹³¹Don Sharkey, The Woman Shall Conquer (New York: All Saints, 1962), 7.

Chapter 6

¹Selma Williams, Divine Rebel: The Life of Anne Marbury Hutchinson (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981), 35.

²Antonia Fraser, The Weaker Vessel (New York: Knopf, 1984), 122.

³Fraser, Weaker Vessel, 2; Williams, Divine Rebel, 56.]

⁴John Chamberlain, The Chamberlain Letters: A Selection of the Letters of John Chamberlain Concerning Life in England From 1597–1626, ed. Elizabeth M. Thomson (London: John Murray, 1966), 271.

⁵Williams, Divine Rebel, 70.

⁶Quoted in David J. Latt, “Introduction.” in Margaret Fell, Women’s Speaking Justified (Los Angles: University of California Press, 1979), xi.

⁷Quoted in Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York: Scribner, 1971), 137.

⁸Fraser, Weaker Vessel, 251.

⁹Ibid., 154–55.

¹⁰Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 137–38.

¹¹Norman Penney, ed., Experiences in the Life of Mary Penington (London, 1911), quoted in Jessamyn West, ed., The Quaker Reader (New York: Viking, 1962), 132.

¹²Ibid., 133–34.

¹³Ibid.

¹⁴Ibid., 142.

¹⁵Quoted in Jonathan L. Pearl, “French Catholic Demonologists and Their Enemies in the Late Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries,” Church History (December 1983), 461.

¹⁶Judith C. Brown, Immodest Acts: The Life of a Lesbian Nun in Renaissance Italy (London: Oxford University Press, 1985), passim.

¹⁷Fraser, Weaker Vessel, 127.

¹⁸Beatrix M. Couch, “Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz: The First Woman Theologian in the Americas,” in John and Ellen Webster, eds. The Church and Women in the Third World (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985), 51–52.

¹⁹Quoted in Anne Fremantle, Woman’s Way to God (New York: St. Martin’s, 1977), 129.

²⁰Ibid.

²¹Couch, “Sor Juana,” 52.

²²Ibid., 53.

²³Quoted in Deen, Great Women of the Christian Faith (New York: Harper &. Row, 1959), 130.

²⁴Jeanne Guyon, The Autobiography of Madame Guyon, trans. Thomas Allen (New Canaan, Conn.: Keats, 1980), 133.

²⁵Ibid.

²⁶Thomas C. Upham, The Life and Religious Opinions and Experience of Madame Guyon (London: Allenson, 1905), 185–86.

²⁷Guyon, Autobiography, 231.

²⁸Upham, Life of Madame Guyon, 187–89.

²⁹Ibid., 191.

³⁰Guyon, Autobiography, 236.

³¹Upham, Life of Madame Guyon, 264–65.

³²Ibid., 229, 264–65.

³³Deen, Great Women, 132.

³⁴Ronald A. Knox, Enthusiasm: A Chapter in the History of Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1961), 325ff.

³⁵Guyon, Autobiography, 323.

³⁶Quoted in Richard L. Greaves, “The Role of Women in Early English Nonconformity,” Church History (September 1983), 307.

³⁷Rita Mancha, “The Woman’s Authority: Calvin to Edwards,” Journal of Christian Reconstruction, vol. 6, no. 2 (Winter 1979–80), 86–98, 93.

³⁸Quoted in Edmund S. Morgan, The Puritan Family (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), 44.

³⁹Thomas Edwards, Gangraena, (London, 1646), quoted in Joyce L. Irwin, Womanhood in Radical Protestantism, 1525–1675 (New York: Mellen, 1979), 218.

⁴⁰Margo Todd, “Humanists, Puritans and the Spiritualized Household,” Church History (March 1980), 29.

⁴¹Quoted in ibid., 29.

⁴²Keith Thomas, “Women and the Civil War Sects,” in Trevor Aston, ed., Crisis in Europe, 1560–1660 (New York: Basic Books, 1965), 317–40.

⁴³Latt, “Introduction,” ix.

⁴⁴Fraser, Weaker Vessel, 246.

⁴⁵Greaves, “The Role of Women,” 302, 306–7.

⁴⁶Quoted in Constance M. Coltman, “Post-Reformation: The Free Churches,” in A. Maude Royden, The Church and Woman (New York: George H. Doran, 1924), 95.

⁴⁷John Robinson, A Justification of Separation From the Church of England (n.p., 1610), 150, quoted in Irwin, Womanhood, 163.

⁴⁸Ibid., 163.

⁴⁹Irwin, Womanhood, 165.

⁵⁰Richard Mather, Church Government and Church Covenant Discussed (London, 1643), 60, quoted in Irwin, Womanhood, 167.

⁵¹R. Baillie, A Dissuasive From the Errours of the Time (London, 1645), 110, in Irwin, Womanhood, 168.

⁵²Thomas Hutchinson, “The Examination of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson at the court at Newtown. November 1637,” in Thomas Hutchinson, ed., The History of the Colony and Province of Massachusetts-Bay (1767; reprint, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936), 366–91, quoted in Williams, Divine Rebel, 73.

⁵³Williams, Divine Rebel, 79–81.

⁵⁴Ibid., 91–92.

⁵⁵Ibid., 97–98.

⁵⁶John Cotton, “The Way of the Congregational Churches Cleared” (1648), in David D. Hall, ed., The Antinomian Controversy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1968), 412.

⁵⁷John Winthrop, “Short Story” (1644), in Hall, Antinomian Controversy, 205–13.

⁵⁸Williams, Divine Rebel, passim, 54–114.

⁵⁹John Winthrop, Winthrop’s Journal: History of New England, 1630–1649, 2 vols., ed. James K. Hosmer (New York: Scribner, 1908), 1240

⁶⁰Quoted in Williams, Divine Rebel, 2–3.

⁶¹Ibid., 142, 127–28.

⁶²Williams, Divine Rebel, 121.

⁶³Franklin B. Dexter, ed., “A Report of the Trial of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson before the Church in Boston, 1638.” Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings. 2nd series (1889), 4:173, quoted in Williams, Divine Rebel, 178.

⁶⁴Winthrop, “Short Story,” 274.

⁶⁵Williams, Divine Rebel, 121, 4; John Winthrop, Life and Letters of John Winthrop, 2 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1869), 2207.

⁶⁶Thomas Weld, quoted in Winthrop, “Short Story,” 214.

⁶⁷Ibid., 218.

⁶⁸Donald G. Mathews, “Women’s History/Everyone’s History,” in Thomas and Keller, Women in New Worlds, 33.

⁶⁹Quoted in Leon McBeth, Women in Baptist Life (Nashville: Broadman, 1979), 29.

⁷⁰Fraser, Weaker Vessel, 245.

⁷¹Greaves, “Role of Women,” 308; Irwin, Womanhood, 218.

⁷²Fraser, Weaker Vessel, 245.

⁷³Coltman, “Post-Reformation,” 97.

⁷⁴Ibid., 97.

⁷⁵Greaves, “Role of Women,” 302–3.

⁷⁶John Rogers, Ohel or Beth-shemesh (London, 1653), quoted in Joyce Irwin, Womanhood, 171, 174.

⁷⁷Irwin, Womanhood, 170.

⁷⁸B. S. Capp, The Fifth Monarchy Men (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), 174, 142, 184.

⁷⁹Ibid., 102, 189, 183.

⁸⁰George H. Williams and Edith Waldvogel, “A History of Speaking in Tongues and Related Gifts,” in Michael P. Hamilton, ed., The Charismatic Movement (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 75–80.

⁸¹John Wesley, The Journal of John Wesley, 4 vols. (New York: Dutton, 1907), 1:171.

⁸²Ibid., 172.

⁸³Thomas, “Women and the Civil War Sects,” 324–25.

⁸⁴George Fox, The Works of George Fox, 8 vols. (New York: Isaac T. Hopper, 1831; reprint ed., New York: AMS, 1975), 4:106, 109.

⁸⁵Elaine C. Huber, “‘A Woman Must Not Speak’: Quaker Women in the English Left Wing,” in Ruether and McLaughlin, Women of Spirit, 167.

⁸⁶Quoted in Emily Manners, Elizabeth Hooton: First Quaker Woman Preacher (London: Headley Brothers, 1914), 30, 41.

⁸⁷Horatio Rogers, Mary Dyer of Rhode Island (Providence: Preston and Rounds, 1896), quoted in West, Quaker Reader, 169; Huber, “A Woman Must Not Speak,” 169.

⁸⁸G. T. Paine, ed., A Call from Death to Life, being an account of the sufferings of Marmaduke Stephenson, William Robinson and Mary Dyer in New England, in the year 1659 (Printed by Friends in London, 1660), 46, quoted in Huber, “A Woman Must Not Speak,” 171.

⁸⁹Ibid.

⁹⁰Rogers, Mary Dyer, 175.

⁹¹West, Quaker Reader, 219.

⁹²Latt, “Introduction,” in Fell, Women’s Speaking Justified, iii-iv.

⁹³Margaret Fell, The Examination and Tryall of Margaret Fell and George Fox (London, n.p.: 1664), 15–16.

⁹⁴West, Quaker Reader, 219.

⁹⁵Latt, “Introduction,” in Fell, Women’s Speaking Justified, v.

⁹⁶Fell, Women’s Speaking Justified, 10.

⁹⁷Ibid., 18.

⁹⁸George Fox, “An encouragement to all the faithful women’s meetings,” (Letter CCCXX) in Works, 8:97.

⁹⁹Quoted in West, Quaker Reader, 221–22.

¹⁰⁰Joseph Besse, A Collection of the Sufferings of the People Called Quakers, 2 vols. (London, 1753), 1:84ff., quoted in Julia O’Faolain and Lauro Martines, eds., Not in God’s Image (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 264.

¹⁰¹Pamela Volkman, From Heroics to Dissent: A Study of the Thought and Psychology of English Nonconformity, 1660–1700, Through Autobiography (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester, 1982, quoted in Greaves, “The Role of Women,” 299.

¹⁰²Thomas, “Women and the Civil War Sects,” 325.

¹⁰³Ibid., 326–27.

¹⁰⁴Cotton Mather, Ornaments for the Daughters of Zion (Delmar, N.Y.: Scholars’ Facsimiles & Reprints, 1978), 46.

¹⁰⁵Pattie Cowell, “Introduction,” in Mather, Ornaments, xv–xvi, 85.

¹⁰⁶Laurel T. Ulrich, Good Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650–1750 (New York: Knopf, 1982), 224–25.

¹⁰⁷Alexander V. G. Allen, American Religious Leaders: Jonathan Edwards (Cambridge: Riverside, 1890), 197.

¹⁰⁸Rita Mancha, “The Woman’s Authority: Calvin to Edwards,” 96.

¹⁰⁹Jonathan Edwards, “Sarah Pierrepont,” in Jonathan Edwards: Representative Selections, ed. Clarence H. Faust and Thomas H. Johnson (New York: Hill and Wang, 1935), 56.

¹¹⁰Jonathan Edwards, “A faithful Narrative,” in Faust and Johnson, Jonathan Edwards, 85–87.

¹¹¹Jonathan Edwards, The Works of Jonathan Edwards, ed. John E. Smith, 7 vols. The Great Awakening (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), 4:428.

¹¹²F. Ernest Stoeffler, Continental Pietism and Early American Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976), 58.

¹¹³Quoted in ibid., 59.

¹¹⁴Stoeffler, Continental Pietism, 59.

¹¹⁵Rebecca L. Harmon, Susanna: Mother of the Wesleys (Nashville: Abingdon, 1968), 20.

¹¹⁶Harmon, Susanna, 47–49.

¹¹⁷Quoted in ibid., 47.

¹¹⁸Proceedings of the Wesley Historical Society, 29:50–57, quoted in Robert G. Tuttle, Jr., John Wesley: His Life and Theology (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978), 41–42.

¹¹⁹Quoted in Harmon, Susanna, 89.

¹²⁰John Wesley, The Works of John Wesley, 14 vols. (Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 1958), 1:385–86.

¹²¹Ibid., 386.

¹²²Ibid.

¹²³Ibid.

¹²⁴Earl Kent Brown, “Standing in the Shadow: Women in Early Methodism,” Nexus, vol. 17, no. 2 (Spring 1974), 22.

¹²⁵Earl Kent Brown, Women of Mr. Wesley’s Methodism (New York: Mellen, 1983), 99.

¹²⁶Ibid., 105.

¹²⁷Ibid., 185–98.

¹²⁸John Wesley, The Letters of the Rev. John Wesley, 8 vols., ed. John Telford (London: Epworth, 1931), 2:118–20.

¹²⁹John Wesley, Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament (London: Wesleyan-Melhodist Book-Room, 1754), n.p.

¹³⁰Brown, Women of Mr. Wesley’s Methodism, 20.

¹³¹Wesley, Letters, 8:190; 4:133, 164.

¹³²Ibid., 5:130.

¹³³Ibid., 5:257.

¹³⁴Quoted in Brown, “Women of the Word,” 76.

¹³⁵A Discoverie of Six women preachers, in Middlesex, Kent, Cambridgeshire, and Salisbury (London, 1641), quoted in Irwin, Womanhood, 211.

¹³⁶Brown, “Women of the Word,” 76.

¹³⁷Quoted in ibid, 78.

¹³⁸Brown, “Women of the Word,” 80.

¹³⁹Brown, Women of Mr. Wesley’s Methodism, 174–75.

¹⁴⁰Ibid., 77.

¹⁴¹John R. Weinlick, Count Zinzendorf (Nashville: Abingdon, 1956), 200.

¹⁴²Ibid., 200, 205.

¹⁴³Thomas, “Women and the Civil War-Sects,” 327–28.

Chapter 7

¹Quoted in Mary D. Irvine and Alice L. Eastwood, Pioneer Women of the Presbyterian Church, United States (Richmond: Presbyterian Committee of Publication, 1923), 18.

²Lawrence Foster, Religion and Sexuality: The Shakers, The Mormons, and the Oneida Community (Urbana: University of Illinois, n.d.), 25.

³Terry D. Bilhartz, ed., Francis Asbury’s America: An Album of Early American Methodism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 85, 39.

⁴Rosemary Ruether and Rosemary Keller, eds., Women and Religion in America: The Nineteenth Century, 3 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1981), 12–3, 6.

⁵Martha T. Blauvelt, “Women and Revivalism,” in Rosemary Ruether and Skinner, Women and Religion, 1:32.

⁶William G. McLoughlin, Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform: an Essay on Religion and Social Change in America, 1607–1977 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 132–33.

⁷Emily Hahn, Once Upon a Pedestal (New York: Crowell, 1974), 40.

⁸Page P. Miller, “Women in the Vanguard of the Sunday School Movement,” Journal of Presbyterian History 58 (Winter 1980): 311.

⁹Ford K. Brown, Fathers of the Victorians (Cambridge: University Press, 1961), 327–28.

¹⁰Quoted in Charles Edwin Jones, Perfectionist Persuasion: The Holiness Movement and American Methodism, 1867–1936 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1974), 189–94.

¹¹Quoted in Ian Bradley, The Call to Seriousness: The Evangelical Impact on the Victorians (New York: Macmillan, 1976), 49–50.

¹²Bradley, The Call to Seriousness, 49.

¹³Martin E. Marty, The Pro and Con Book of Religious America (Waco: Word, 1975), 98.

¹⁴Bradley, Call to Seriousness, 48.

¹⁵Ibid.

¹⁶Edwin W. Rice, The Sunday-School Movement and the American Sunday-School Union, 1780–1917 (Philadelphia: American Sunday-School Union, 1917), 20; William Roberts, Memoirs of Hannah More, 2:63ff., quoted in Rice, Sunday-School Movement, 20; Robert Lynn and Elliott Wright, The Big Little School: Sunday Child of American Protestantism (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 9.

¹⁷George W. Bethune, Memoirs of Mrs. Joanna Bethune (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1863), 88, 120.

¹⁸Edwin Wilbur Rice, The Sunday-School Movement, 57; Nancy Hardesty, Great Women of the Christian Faith (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980), 74.

¹⁹Quoted in Miller, “Women in the Vanguard,” 313.

²⁰Lynn and Wright, Big Little School, 12.

²¹Rice, The Sunday School Movement, 59–60.

²²Lynn and Wright, Big Little School, 69.

²³Rice, The Sunday School Movement, 209–10.

²⁴Ibid., 33.

²⁵Charles G. Finney, Memoirs (New York: Revell, 1876), 214.

²⁶Quoted in Donald Dayton, Discovering an Evangelical Heritage (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 88.

²⁷Dayton, Discovering an Evangelical Heritage, 88.

²⁸Finney, Memoirs, 214, 321–22, 438, 444; Nancy Hardesty, Women Called to Witness: Evangelical Feminism in the 19th Century (Nashville, Abingdon, 1984), 47.

²⁹Lois A Boyd and R. Douglas Brakenridge, Presbyterian Women in America: Two Centuries of a Quest for Status (London: Greenwood, 1983), 94.

³⁰Quoted in Hardesty, Great Women, 102.

³¹Finney, Memoirs, 421, 443.

³²Charles G. Finney, Revivals of Religion (London: Revell, n.d.), 291.

³³E. Glenn Hinson, “The Church: Liberator or Oppressor of Women?” Review and Expositor, 73 (Winter 1975): 22.

³⁴Harriette F. Cooke, Mildmay: Or, The Story of the First Deaconess Institution (London: Elliot Stock, 1892), 47.

³⁵A. Maude Royden, The Church and Woman (New York: Doran, 1924), 139.

³⁶Frederick S. Weiser, “The Origin of the Modem Diaconate for Women,” in Servants of Christ: Deaconesses in Renewal, ed. Donald G. Bloesch (Minneapolis: Bethany, 1971), 32.

³⁷Janet James, ed., Women in American Religion (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1980), 12.

³⁸Rosemary S. Keller, “Lay Women in the Protestant Tradition,” in Ruether and Keller, Women and Religion in America, 1247.

³⁹Virginia L. Brereton, “Preparing Women for the Lord’s Work,” in Women in New Worlds: Historical Perspectives on the Wesleyan Tradition, ed. Hilah F. Thomas and Rosemary Keller (Nashville: Abingdon, 1981), 184–87.

⁴⁰Christian Golder, “Mission and Aim of the Female Diaconate in the United States,” in Ruether and Keller, Women and Religion in America, 1272–73.

⁴¹Amanda Porterfield, Feminine Spirituality in America: From Sarah Edwards to Martha Graham (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), 122.

⁴²Quoted in Allan Coppedge, “Entire Sanctification in Early American Methodism: 1812–1835,” Wesleyan Theological Journal (Spring 1978), 46.

⁴³Thomas Coke, The Experience and Spiritual Letters of Mrs Hester Ann Rogers: With a Sermon Preached on the Occasion of Her Death (London: Milner, n.d.), 200–201.

⁴⁴Bradley, Call to Seriousness, 42.

⁴⁵Clark Griffith, “Emily Dickinson,” The World Book Encyclopedia, 22 vols. (Chicago: World Book, 1983), 5:157.

⁴⁶Porter-field, Feminine Spirituality in America, 130.

⁴⁷Erik Routley, A Panorama of Christian Hymnody (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical, 1979), 115.

⁴⁸Kenneth W. Osbeck, Singing With Understanding (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1979), 180.

⁴⁹Ibid., 136.

⁵⁰Routley, Panorama, 116.

⁵¹Bernard Ruffin, Fanny Crosby (n.p.: United Church Press, 1976), 78.

⁵²Ibid., 129.

⁵³Dale A. Johnson, Women in English Religion, 1700–1925 (New York: Mellen, 1983), 87.

⁵⁴I. D. Stewart, The History of the Freewill Baptists, 2 vols. (Dover: Freewill Baptist Printing Establishment, 1862), 1:191.

⁵⁵Ibid., 188, 191.

⁵⁶Ibid., 308–10, 318, 338, 377, 391.

⁵⁷Jerena Lee, Religious Experiences and Journal (Philadelphia: Jerena Lee, 1849), 14–17, quoted in Ruether and Keller, eds., Women and American Religion, 212.

⁵⁸Ibid., 213.

⁵⁹Almond Davis, The Female Preacher; or Memoir of Salome Lincoln, Afterwards the Wife of Elder Junia S. Mowry (Providence: Elder J. S. Mowry, 1843), 36–37, 43–44.

⁶⁰Ibid., 53.

⁶¹Mary Cole, Trials and Triumphs of Faith (Anderson, Ind.: Gospel Trumpet, 1914), 50–51, 85, 106.

⁶²Timothy L. Smith, Called Unto Holiness: The Story of the Nazarenes, the Formative Years (Kansas City, Mo.: Nazarene, 1962), 12, 20.

⁶³Timothy L. Smith, Revivalism, 124; Jones, Perfectionist Persuasion, 3.

⁶⁴Smith, Revivalism, 169.

⁶⁵Hardesty, Women Called, 73.

⁶⁶Jones, Perfectionist Persuasion, 4–5; Smith, Revivalism, 125.

⁶⁷Jones, Perfectionist Persuasion, 3; Nancy Hardesty, “The Wesleyan Movement and Women’s Liberation,” in Theodore Runyon, ed., Sanctification and Liberation, (Nashville: Abingdon, 1981), 167.

⁶⁸Phoebe Palmer, Promise of the Father; or, A Neglected Speciality of the Last Days (Boston: Henry V. Degen, 1859), 2.

⁶⁹Smith, Revivalism, 67–68.

⁷⁰Smith, Called Unto Holiness, 23.

⁷¹Catherine Booth, Female Ministry; Or, Woman’s Right to Preach the Gospel (New York: Salvation Army, 1975), 14; F. de L. Booth-Tucker, The Life of Catherine Booth, 2 vols. (London: Salvation Army, 1892), 1:86.

⁷²Catherine Bramwell-Booth, Catherine Booth: The Story of Her Loves (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1970), 185.

⁷³Quoted in Norman H. Murdoch, “Female Ministry in the Thought and Work of Catherine Booth” Church History 53 (September 1984): 351.

⁷⁴Quoted in Bramwell-Booth, Catherine Booth, 185.

⁷⁵Margaret Troutt, The General Was a Lady: The Story of Evangeline Booth (Nashville: Holman, 1980), 22.

⁷⁶Catherine Booth, Papers on Aggressive Christianity (London: Partridge, 1980), 11, 14.

⁷⁷Catherine Booth, The Salvation Army in Relation to the Church and State (London: Partridge, n.d.), 17–18.

⁷⁸Quoted in Catherine Booth, Female Ministry, 3.

⁷⁹Flora Larsson, My Best Men Are Women (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1974), 17, 19–22.

⁸⁰Ibid., 22.

⁸¹Troutt, The General Was a Lady, 55–56.

⁸²Catherine Booth, Life and Death, Being Reports of Addresses Delivered in London (London: Salvation Army, 1883), 11.

⁸³Murdoch, “Female Ministry,” 354.

⁸⁴Smith, The Christian’s Secret of a Happy Life (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 38.

⁸⁵Henry, The Secret Life, 86.

⁸⁶Smith, The Christian’s Secret of a Happy Life, 171.

⁸⁷Melvin Dieter, The Holiness Revival of the Nineteenth Century (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1980), 26.

⁸⁸Ibid., 163.

⁸⁹Quoted in Benjamin B. Warfield, Perfectionism (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1958), 261.

⁹⁰Melvin E. Dieter, “The Smiths—A Biographical Sketch With Selected Items From the Collection,” The Asbury Seminarian 38 (Spring 1983): 33.

⁹¹Elliott Wright, Holy Company: Christian Heroes and Heroines (New York: Macmillan, 1980), 41; Ruether and Keller, Women and Religion in America, 8.

⁹²Frances E. Willard, Glimpses of Fifty Years: The Autobiography of an American Woman (Chicago: Smith, 1889), 219–20.

⁹³Leon McBeth, Women in Baptist Life (Nashville: Broadman, 1979), 60–61.

⁹⁴Wright, Holy Company, 39–40.

⁹⁵Amanda Smith, An Autobiography: The Story of the Lord’s Dealings with Mrs. Amanda Smith, the Colored Evangelist (Chicago: Meyer & Brothers, 1893), 19–20.

⁹⁶Ibid., 199–200.

⁹⁷Ibid., 281, 321.

⁹⁸Quoted in Wright, Holy Company, 42.

⁹⁹Quoted in Elinor Rice Hays, Those Extraordinary Blackwells: The Story of a Journey to a Better World (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1967), 119–20.

¹⁰⁰Mother Stewart, Memoirs of the Crusade: A Thrilling Account of the Great Uprising of Women of Ohio in 1873, Against the Liquor Crime (Columbus: Williams & Hubbard, 1889), 10.

¹⁰¹Frances E. Willard, Woman and Temperance; or, The Work and Workers of The Women’s Christian Temperance Union (Hartford: Park, 1883), 208–11.

¹⁰²Ibid., 57–58.

¹⁰³Quoted in Ruth Bordin, Woman and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873–1900 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1981), 49.

¹⁰⁴Anna A. Gordon, The Beautiful Life of Frances E. Willard (Chicago: Woman’s Temperance Publishing Association, 1898), 147–49.

¹⁰⁵Ray Strachey, Frances Willard: Her Life and Work (New York: Revell, 1913), 208.

¹⁰⁶Willard, Glimpses of Fifty Years, 356–59.

¹⁰⁷Frances E. Willard, Woman in the Pulpit (Boston: Lothrop, 1888), 62.

¹⁰⁸Willard, Glimpses of Fifty Years, 359–60.

¹⁰⁹Carry A. Nation, The Use and Need of the Life of Carry A. Nation (Topeka: Stevens, 1909), 126.

¹¹⁰Ibid., 130, 133–34.

¹¹¹Ibid., 292.

¹¹²Walter Martin, The Kingdom of the Cults: An Analysis of the Major Cult Systems in the Present Christian Era (Minneapolis: Bethany, 1982), 223, 225.

¹¹³Lawrence Foster, Religion and Sexuality, 32, 37.

¹¹⁴Ronald L. Numbers, Prophetess of Health: A Study of Ellen G. White (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 15–21.

¹¹⁵Ibid., 200–201.

¹¹⁶Mary Ewens, “The Leadership of Nuns in Immigrant Catholicism,” in Ruether and Keller, Women in American Religion, 101.

¹¹⁷Edith Deen, Great Women of the Christian Faith, 364–65.

¹¹⁸Joseph I. Dirvin, Mrs. Seton: Foundress of the American Sisters of Charity (New York: TAN, 1975), 138, quoted in Porterfield, Feminine Spirituality, 112–13.

¹¹⁹Ewens, “Leadership of Nuns,” 115, 128.

¹²⁰Ibid., 132.

¹²¹Mary Ewens, “Removing the Veil: The Liberated American Nun,” in Rosemary Ruether and Eleanor McLaughlin, eds., Women of Spirit: Female Leadership in the Jewish and Christian Traditions (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 263.

¹²²Willard, Woman in the Pulpit, 95.

¹²³Ibid., 96, 98–99.

¹²⁴Hays, Those Extraordinary Blackwells, 117–18.

¹²⁵Ibid., 118–19.

¹²⁶Barbara B. Zikmund, “The Struggle for the Right to Preach,” in Ruether and Keller, eds., Women and Religion in America, 214.

¹²⁷Luther Lee, Woman’s Right to Preach the Gospel, quoted in Ruether and Keller, Women and Religion in America, 217.

¹²⁸Hays, Those Extraordinary Blackwells, 120.

¹²⁹Ibid., 121–22.

¹³⁰Hardesty, Great Women, 101–2.

¹³¹Frances E. Willard and Mary A Livermore, eds., “Olympia Brown,” in A Woman of the Century: Fourteen Hundred-Seventy Biographical Sketches of Leading American Women (Chicago: Moulton, 1893), 130.

¹³²Arthur T. Jennings, History of American Wesleyan Methodism (Syracuse: Wesleyan Methodist Publishing Association, 1902), 4.

¹³³James, Women in American Religion, 19; Hardesty, Called, 22.

¹³⁴Hardesty, Called, 23; James, Women, 19.

¹³⁵James, Women in American Religion, 19–20.

¹³⁶Willard, Woman in the Pulpit, 38.

¹³⁷Boyd and Brackenridge, Presbyterian Women in America, 98.

¹³⁸Ibid., 91.

¹³⁹Ibid., 112, 116.

¹⁴⁰Alan Graebner, “Birth Control and the Lutherans: The Missouri Synod as a Case Study,” in James, Women in American Religion, 231.

¹⁴¹Ibid., 231.

¹⁴²Velma M. Ferrell, “Called to Serve: Women in the Southern Baptist Convention,” Faith and Mission 2 (Fall 1984): 22; McBeth, Women in Baptist Life, 109–11.

¹⁴³McBeth, Women in Baptist Life, 112, 110.

¹⁴⁴Ibid., 113.

¹⁴⁵Margaret Bacon, As the Way Opens: The Story of Quaker Women in America (Richmond, Ind.: Friends United, 1980), 58.

¹⁴⁶Dana Greene, ed., Lucretia Mott: Her Complete Speeches and Sermons (New York: Mellen, 1980), 4–8.

¹⁴⁷Greene, Lucretia Mott, 17; Hinson, “The Church: Liberator or Oppressor of Women?” 26.

¹⁴⁸Luther Lee, Five Sermons and a Tract, ed. Donald W. Dayton (Chicago: Holrad, 1975), 16–17.

¹⁴⁹Arthur T. Jennings, History of American Wesleyan Methodism (Syracuse: Wesleyan Methodist Publishing Association, 1902), 113, 124.

¹⁵⁰B. T. Roberts, Ordaining Women (Rochester: Earnest Christian, 1891), 159.

¹⁵¹Ibid., 52.

¹⁵²Lucille Sider Dayton and Donald W. Dayton, “Your Daughters Shall Prophesy: Feminism in the Holiness Movement,” Methodist History (January 1976), 87.

¹⁵³Jerry R. Flora, “Ninety Years of Brethren Women in Ministry,” Ashland Theological Journal 17 (Fall 1984): 4–5.

¹⁵⁴Leslie Andrews, “Restricted Freedom: A. B. Simpson’s View of Women in Ministry” in Birth of a Vision, ed. David Hartzveld and Charles Nienkirchen (Beaverlodge, Alta.: Horizon, 1986), 219.

¹⁵⁵Ibid., 220.

¹⁵⁶A. B. Simpson, When the Comforter Came (New York: Christian Publications, 1911), 11.

¹⁵⁷Ibid.

¹⁵⁸Carrie Judd Montgomery, “Under His Wings”: The Story of My Life (Oakland: Triumphs of Faith, 1936), 98–102.

¹⁵⁹Dayton and Dayton, “Your Daughters,” 88; John W. Smith, Heralds of a Brighter Day: Biographical Sketches of Early Leaders in the Church of God Reformation Movement (Anderson, Ind.: Gospel Trumpet, 1955), 125.

¹⁶⁰Charles W. Conn, Like A Mighty Army—Moves the Church of God, 1886–1955 (Cleveland, Tenn.: Church of God Publishing House, 1955), 73, 93, 245–46.

¹⁶¹George Garrison, “The Sanctificationists of Belton,” The Charities Review 3 (November 1893): 29, quoted in Ruether and Keller, Women and Religion in America, 95.

¹⁶²Ibid., quoted in Ruether and Keller, Women and Religion in America, 99–100.

¹⁶³Boyd and Brackenridge, Presbyterian Women in America, 117.

¹⁶⁴Gayle Kimball, The Religious Ideas of Harriet Beecher Stowe: Her Gospel of Womanhood (New York: Mellen, 1982), 161.

Chapter 8

¹Patricia R. Hill, The World Their Household: The American Woman’s Foreign Mission Movement and Cultural Transformation, 1870–1920 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985), 3.

²Hill, The World Their Household, 2.

³Ruth A. Tucker, From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya: A Biographical History of Christian Missions (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983).

⁴Albert L. Vail, Mary Webb and the Mother Society (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1914), ii.

⁵R. Pierce Beaver, American Protestant Women in World Mission: A History of the first Feminist Movement in North America (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 13–14.

⁶Ibid., 34.

⁷Ibid., 53.

⁸Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), 44.

⁹Quoted in A. E. Thompson, The Life of A. B. Simpson (New York: Christian Alliance Publishing, 1920), 121.

¹⁰Quoted in Mary Drewery, William Carey: A Biography (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979), 71.

¹¹Drewery, William Carey, 81.

¹²Quoted in ibid., 94, 123.

¹³Quoted in Marshall Broomhall, Robert Morrison: A Master-builder (New York: Doran, 1924), 59.

¹⁴George Seaver, David Livingstone, His Life and Letters (New York: Harper, 1957), 276; Oliver Ransford, David Livingstone: The Dark Interior (New York: St. Martin’s, 1978), 118.

¹⁵Norman Grub: Once Caught, No Escape: Norman Grubb’s Life Story (Fort Washington, Pa.: Christian Literature Crusade, 1970), 49.

¹⁶Quoted in Drewery, William Carey, 94; quoted in H. and G. Taylor, J. Hudson Taylor: God’s Man in China (Chicago: Moody, 1978), 208.

¹⁷Rufus Anderson, “The Marriage of Missionaries” (1842) in R. Pierce Beaver, ed., To Advance the Gospel: Selections From the Writings of Rufus Anderson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967), 210–15.

¹⁸Quoted in Courtney Anderson, To the Golden Shore: The Life of Adoniram Judson (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1972), 84.

¹⁹Jonathan Allen, in a sermon delivered at Haverhill, Massachusetts, February 5, 1812, quoted in Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Mission for Life: The Story of the Family of Adoniram Judson (New York: Macmillan, 1980), 82.

²⁰American Baptist Magazine, 4 (January 1823): 19, quoted in Brumberg, Mission for Life, 87.

²¹American Baptist Magazine, 4 (January 1923): 20, quoted in Brumberg, Mission for Life, 87.

²²Boston Evening Transcript, 17 (March 27, 1846): 4807, quoted in Brumberg, Mission for Life, 41.

²³William Dean, Memoir of Mrs. Lucy T. Lord of the Chinese Baptist Missions (Philadelphia, 1854), 123, quoted in Barbara Welter, “She Hath Done What She Could: Protestant Women’s Missionary Careers in Nineteenth-Century America,” in Janet Wilson James, ed., Women in American Relgion (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980), 115–16.

²⁴Winifred Mathews, Dauntless Women: Stories of Pioneer Wives (Freeport, N.Y.: Friendship, 1947), 146, 163; Mrs. Horace G. Underwood, “Woman’s Work for Women in Korea,” Missionary Review of the World 18 (July 1905): 498–500.

²⁵Brumberg, Mission for Life, 115.

²⁶John C. Pollock, Hudson Taylor and Maria: Pioneers in China (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1962), 171.

²⁷H. and G. Taylor, Hudson Taylor’s Spiritual Secret (Chicago: Moody, 1932), 210–11.

²⁸Daniel Eddy, Heroines of the Missionary Enterprise: Sketches of Prominent Female Missionaries (London: Arthur Hall, Virtue, and Co., 1858), 124.

²⁹Dorothy Clarke Wilson, Dr. Ida: The Story of Dr. Ida Scudder of Vellore (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959), 221.

³⁰Beaver, American Protestant Women, 59.

³¹Hill, The World Their Household, 47, 49.

³²Beaver, American Protestant Women, 38.

³³Edwin M. Bliss, The Missionary Enterprise: A Concise History of Its Objects, Methods and Extension (New York: Revell, 1908), 253.

³⁴Ibid., 88.

³⁵Beaver, American Protestant Women, 87–88.

³⁶Welter, “She Hath Done What She Could,” 124.

³⁷Beaver, American Protestant Women, 88.

³⁸Carma Van Liere, “Sarah Doremus: Reformed Church Saint,” The Church Herald (October 4, 1985), 16–17.

³⁹Hill, The World Their Household, 45–47.

⁴⁰Rosemary Keller, “Lay Women in the Protestant Tradition,” in Rosemary Ruether and Rosemary Keller, eds., Women and Religion in America: The Nineteenth Century, A Documentary History, 3 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1981), 1242–43.

⁴¹Quoted in Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility, 13–14.

⁴²Irwin Hyatt, Our Ordered Lives Confess: Three Nineteenth-Century American Missionaries in East Shantung (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976), 104–5.

⁴³James Thobum, Life of Isabella Thoburn (Cincinnati: Jennings and Pye, 1903), quoted in Welter, “She Hath Done What She Could,” 120.

⁴⁴Elisabeth Elliot Leitch, “The Place of Women in World Missions,” in David M. Howard, ed., Jesus Christ: Lord of the Universe, Hope of the World, (Downers Grove: Inter Varsity, 1974), 124–25.

⁴⁵Hyatt, Our Ordered Lives, 104–5.

⁴⁶Beaver, American Protestant Women, 63, 102.

⁴⁷Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility, 88.

⁴⁸Mrs. Ethan Curtis, “The Reflex Influence of Missions,” Missionary Review of the World 5 (March 1892): 183.

⁴⁹Hyatt, Our Ordered Lives, 135–37.

⁵⁰Robert Speer, Servants of the King (New York: Interchurch, 1909), 144.

⁵¹Frances E. Willard, Woman in the Pulpit (Boston: Lothrop, 1888), 81, 100.

⁵²Leecy A. Barnett, Pioneers, Pedagogues, and Preachers: Expanding Opportunities for Women in Presbyterian Missions to the American Indians, 1833–1893, M.A. Thesis, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, III. (December 1985), 117, 127, 129.

⁵³Hyatt, Our Ordered Lives, 99.

⁵⁴Beaver, American Protestant Women, 179.

⁵⁵Frank Houghton, Amy Carmichael of Dohnavur (London: Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge, 1954), 62.

⁵⁶Ibid., 217–21.

⁵⁷Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity: Three Centuries of Advance, 1500–1800, 7 vols. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970), 3:100.

⁵⁸Francis Parkman, The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1868), 278.

⁵⁹Stephen Neill, A History of Christian Missions (New York: Penguin, 1964), 423.

⁶⁰Glenn D. Kittler, The Woman God Loved (Garden City: Hanover, 1959), 58.

⁶¹Henri Daniel-Rops, The Heroes of God (New York: Hawthorn, 1959), 154–55.

⁶²Ibid., 162–63.

⁶³E. R. Pitman, Lady Missionaries in Many Lands (London. Pickering & Inglis, n.d.), 5.

⁶⁴Tucker, From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya, 161.

⁶⁵Carol Christian and Gladys Plummer, God and One Redhead: Mary Slessor of Calabar (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970), 177.

⁶⁶Maria Nilsen, Malta Moe (Chicago: Moody, 1956), 143–46.

⁶⁷Ibid., 135.

⁶⁸C. S. Winchell, “Mary Clarke Nind,” Woman’s Missionary Friend, 37 (November 1905): 382–83, quoted in Hill, The World Their Household, 85.

⁶⁹Hill, The World Their Household, 85.

⁷⁰Louise A. Cattan, Lamps Are for Lighting: The Story of Helen Barrett Montgomery and Lucy Waterbury Peabody (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972), 38.

⁷¹Quoted in Hill, The World Their Household, 136.

⁷²Helen Barrett Montgomery, Western Women in Eastern Lands (New York: Macmillan, 1910), 243–44.

⁷³Valentin H. Rabe, “Evangelical Logistics: Mission Support and Resources to 1920” in John K. Fairband, ed., The Missionary Enterprise in China and America, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974), 72.

⁷⁴Delavan L. Leonard, A Hundred Years of Missions: The Story of Progress Since Carey’s Beginning (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1895), 181–82.

⁷⁵A. T. Pierson, “The Outlook for the Twentieth Century,” Missionary Review of the World 14 (March 1901): 167–68.

⁷⁶Hill, The World Their Household, 167.

⁷⁷Cattan, Lamps Are for Lighting, 56–57.

⁷⁸Hill, The World Their Household, 163.

⁷⁹Ibid., 148–49.

⁸⁰Ibid., 51–53.

⁸¹McBeth, Women in Baptist Life, 88, 94.

⁸²Bobbie Sorrill, Annie Armstrong: Dreamer in Action (Nashville: Broadman, 1984), 93–94.

⁸³McBeth, Women in Baptist Life, 95, 97.

⁸⁴Alma Hunt, History of the Woman’s Missionary Union (Nashville: Convention, 1964), 24, quoted in McBeth, Women in Baptist Life, 92.

⁸⁵Hyatt, Our Ordered Lives, 114.

⁸⁶Donald Mathews, “Women’s History/ Everyone’s History,” in Thomas and Keller, eds., Women in New Worlds, 47.

⁸⁷Augustus R. Buckland, Women in the Mission Field: Pioneers and Martyrs (New York: Whittaker, 1895), 11, 13; Geoffrey Moorhouse, The Missionaries (London: Methuen, 1973), 274.

⁸⁸Buckland, Women in the Mission Field, 23; Moorhouse, The Missionaries, 275.

⁸⁹Buckland, Women in the Mission Field, 28.

⁹⁰Hill, The World Their Household, 169.

⁹¹Missionary Review of the World 11 (November 1898): 873.

⁹²Ibid., 874.

⁹³Evelyn Stenbock, Miss Terri: The Story of Maude Cary, Pioneer GMU Missionary in Morocco (Lincoln, Neb.: Good News Broadcasting Association, 1970), 99–103.

⁹⁴Norman P. Grubb, C. T. Studd: Cricketer and Pioneer (Chicago: Moody, 1962), 210–11.

⁹⁵Lorry Lutz, Born to Lose, Bound to Win: The Amazing Journey of Mother Eliza George (Irvine, Calif.: Harvest, 1980), 138–39, 144, 169, 190.

⁹⁶Mrs. Ethan Curtis, “A generation of ‘Woman’s Work for Woman,’” Missionary Review of the World 23 (July 1910): 535.

⁹⁷Dorothy Clarke Wilson, Palace of Healing: The Story of Dr. Clara Swain, First Woman Missionary Doctor and the Hospital She Founded (New York: McGraw Hill, 1968), passim.

⁹⁸Quoted in Sherwood Eddy, Pathfinders of the World Missionary Crusade (New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury, 1945), 131.

⁹⁹Dorothy Clarke Wilson, Dr. Ida: The Story of Dr. Ida Scudder of Vellore (New York: McGraw Hill, 1959), 273–75.

¹⁰⁰Ibid., 298.

¹⁰¹Ibid., 286.

¹⁰²Alan Burgess, Daylight Must Come: The Story of a Courageous Woman Doctor in the Congo (New York: Dell, n.d.), 135.

¹⁰³“Interview with Helen Roseveare,” HIS (January 1977), 18.

¹⁰⁴Ibid., 19.

¹⁰⁵She is the subject of a biography, Allan Burgess, Daylight Must Come, and has written her own accounts of her missionary experience in Give Me This Mountain, He Gave Me a Valley, and Living Sacrifice. She has also become a leading spokeswoman for evangelical foreign missions.

¹⁰⁶Ethel Wallis and Mary Bennett, Two Thousand Tongues to Go (New York: Harper & Row, 1959), 98.

¹⁰⁷Eunice V. Pike, Not Alone (Chicago: Moody, 1964), 10.

¹⁰⁸Clarence W. Hall, “Two Thousand Tongues to Go,” in Adventurers for God (New York: Harper, 1959), 119.

¹⁰⁹Ethel E. Wallis, The Dayuma Story: Life Under Auca Spears (New York: Harper & Row, 1960), passim.

¹¹⁰Tucker, From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya, 363.

¹¹¹Phyllis Thompson, Count It All Joy: The Story of Joy Ridderhof and Gospel Recordings (Wheaton: Shaw, 1978), 143–44.

¹¹²“Miss Betty Greene: First Lady of MAF,” Christian Times (January 15, 1967): 3.

¹¹³Hill, The World Their Household, 175.

¹¹⁴Kenneth Cragg, “Constance E. Padwick (1886—1968),” The Muslim World 59 (January 1969): 29–34.

¹¹⁵Constance E. Padwick, “North African Reverie,” International Review of Missions 17 (1938): 346–47.

¹¹⁶Marguerite Kraft to Ruth A. Tucker, Personal Correspondence, January 5, 1986.

¹¹⁷Ruth A. Tucker, “Female Mission Strategists: A Historical and Contemporary Perspective,” Missiology 15 (1987): 87.

¹¹⁸E. Thomas Brewster and Elizabeth S. Brewster, “Bonding and the Missionary Task: Establishing a Sense of Belonging,” in Ralph Winter and Steven Hawthorne, eds., Perspectives of the World Christian Movement (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1981), 458, 462.

¹¹⁹Fatima Mahoumet, “Ann Croft and the Fulani,” in Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, 721.

¹²⁰Phyllis Thompson, A Transparent Woman: The Compelling Story of Gladys Aylward (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1971), 183.

Chapter 9

¹Margaret Burton, The Education of Women in China (New York: Revell, 1911), 90, quoted in Shirley S. Garrett, “Images of Chinese Women,” in John and Ellen Webster, eds., The Church and Women in the Third World (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985), 26–27.

²Garrett, “Images of Chinese Women,” 27.

³Ibid., 27–29.

⁴Charles W. Forman, “‘Sing to the Lord a New Song’: Women in the Churches of Oceania,” in Denise O’Brien and Sharon W. Tiffany, eds., Rethinking Women’s Roles: Perspectives From the Pacific (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), 156.

⁵Helen Barrett Montgomery, Western Women in Eastern Lands: An Outline of Fifty Years of Women’s Work in Foreign Missions (New York: Macmillan, 1910), 211.

⁶Ibid., 213.

⁷J. Waskom Pickett, Christ’s Way to India’s Heart (Lucknow: Lucknow Publishing House, 1938), 69.

⁸J. Waskom Pickett, Christian Mass Movements in India (New York: Abingdon, 1933), 193.

⁹J. B. Schuyler, “Conceptions of Christianity in the Context of Tropical Africa: Nigerian Reactions to Its Advent,” in C. G. Beata, ed., Christianity in Tropical Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 216–17.

¹⁰Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), 181.

¹¹David B. Barrett, Schism and Renewal in Africa: An Analysis of Six Thousand Contemporary Religious Movements (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 146–47.

¹²Quoted in Frances Hiebert, “Missionary Women as Models in the Cross-Cultural Context,” Missiology 10 (October 1982): 458.

¹³Joyce Siwani, “Mission Issues in South Africa,” International Review of Mission 73 (July 1984): 329.

¹⁴Penelope Campbell, “Presbyterian West African Missions: Women as Converts and Agents of Social Change,” Journal of Presbyterian History 52 (Summer 1978): 123; M. Louise Pirouet, “Women Missionaries of the Church Missionary Society in Uganda, 1896–1920,” in Torben Christensen and William R. Hutchison, eds., Missionary Ideologies in the Imperialist Era: 1880–1920 (Denmark: Aros, 1982), 236–37.

¹⁵Barrett, Schism and Renewal, 147.

¹⁶Campbell, “Presbyterian West African Missions,” 128.

¹⁷Ibid., 124.

¹⁸Mercy Amba Oduyoye, “Standing on Both Feet: Education and Leadership Training of Women in the Methodist Church, Nigeria,” Ecumenical Review 33 (January 1981): 61.

¹⁹Montgomery, Western Women in Eastern Lands, 210.

²⁰Kathleen Bliss, The Service and Status of Women in the Churches (London: SCM, 1952), 18.

²¹Barrett, Schism and Renewal, 147.

²²Rose Marie Cecchini, “A Witness for Peace: The Experience of Japan YWCA,” International Review of Mission 73 (July 1984): 336–39.

²³Christiana Tsai, Queen of the Dark Chamber (Chicago: Moody, 1953), 35.

²⁴Ibid., 67–68.

²⁵Ibid., 71–72.

²⁶Ibid., 77–78.

²⁷Ibid., 83–88.

²⁸Ibid., 184.

²⁹B. V. Subbamma, New Patterns for Discipling Hindus (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1970), 36.

³⁰Oduyoye, “Standing on Both Feet,” 69.

³¹Virginia R. Jones, “A Sketch of Women of the Good News,” unpublished paper, May, 1985.

³²Ibid.; Ruth A. Tucker, “African Women’s Movement Finds Massive Response,” Evangelical Missions Quarterly 22 (July 1986): 290.

³³Virginia R. Jones, “Information Sheet for Women of the Good News Program,” Minute # 7 of committee meeting, June 27–28, 1979, 1.

³⁴Ibid., 2.

³⁵Virginia Jones to Ruth Tucker, personal correspondence, Napopo Zaire, August 22, 1985.

³⁶Montgomery, Western Women in Eastern Lands, 114.

³⁷Winburn T. Thomas, Protestant Beginnings in Japan: The First Three Decades, 1859–89 (Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1959), 107; Rosalind Goforth, Climbing: Memories of a Missionary’s Wife (Chicago: Moody, n.d.). 155.

³⁸Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christian Missions in China (New York: Macmillan, 1929), 648; Edith G. Dreyer, Light and Shadow in China (London: China Inland Mission, n.d.), 59–63.

³⁹Margaret E. Burton, Women Workers of the Orient (West Bedford, Mass.: Central Committee on the United Study of Foreign Mission, 1918), 37.

⁴⁰Ruth A. Tucker, “The Role of Bible Women in World Evangelism,” Missiology 13 (April 1985): 142–43; Goforth, Climbing, 33.

⁴¹Montgomery, Western Women in Eastern Lands, 233.

⁴²Winburn T. Thomas, Protestant Beginnings in Japan: The First Three Decades, 1859–1889 (Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1959), 107–8.

⁴³James L. Barton, “Bible Women in Ceylon and India,” Life and Light 32 (May 1902): 204.

⁴⁴Ibid., 205.

⁴⁵John L. Nevius, “Planting and Development of Missionary Churches,” in Francis M. DuBose, ed., Classics of Christian Missions (Nashville: Broadman, 1979), 259; Bliss, The Service and Status of Women, 110.

⁴⁶Pickett, Christ’s Way to India’s Heart, 70–71.

⁴⁷Pandita Ramabai, The High-Caste Hindu Woman (London: George Bell, 1888), xxi.

⁴⁸Quoted in Helen S. Dyer, Pandita Ramabai: Her Vision, Her Mission and Triumph of Faith (London: Pickering & Inglis, n.d.), 24.

⁴⁹Ibid., 26.

⁵⁰Shamsundar Manohar Adhav, Pandita Ramabai (Madras: The Christian Literature Society, 1979), 6–8.

⁵¹Ibid., 131.

⁵²Quoted in ibid., 131.

⁵³Ibid., 141.

⁵⁴Ibid., 141–42.

⁵⁵Adhav, Pandita Ramabai, 42.

⁵⁶Pandita Ramabai, The High-Caste Hindu Woman (London: George Bell, 1888), 62.

⁵⁷Nancy Hardesty, Great Women of Faith (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980), 128.

⁵⁸Quoted in Adhav, Pandita Ramabai, 19.

⁵⁹Russell T. Hitt, Sensei: The Life Story of Irene Websier-Smith (New York: Harper & Row, 1956), 131.

⁶⁰Eunice V. Pike, Not Alone (Chicago: Moody, 1964), 59.

⁶¹Ibid., 78.

⁶²Forman, “Sing to the Lord a New Song,” 160–61.

⁶³Quoted in Alice Chai, “Korean Women in Hawaii, 1903–1945,” in Hilah Thomas and Rosemary Keller, eds., Women in New Worlds (Nashville: Abingdon, 1981), 331.

⁶⁴Allen Finley and Lorry Lutz, Mission: A World-Family Affair (San Jose: Christian National Press, 1981), 110–11.

⁶⁵Bliss, The Service and Status of Women, 64.

⁶⁶Ibid.

⁶⁷Montgomery, Western Women in Eastern Lands, 222.

⁶⁸Dorothy Clarke Wilson, Dr. Ida: The Story of Dr. Ida Scudder of Vellore (New York: McGraw Hill, 1959), 320–21.

⁶⁹Flora Larsson, My Best Men Are Women (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1974), 33–34.

⁷⁰Quoted in ibid., 35.

⁷¹Frank Houghton, Amy Carmichael of Dohnavur (London: Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge, 1954), 217–21, 355–58.

⁷²John Webster, “Assumptions About the Indian Woman Underlying Protestant Church Policies and Programs, 1947–1982,” in Webster and Webster, The Church and Women, 40–42.

⁷³Ibid., 43.

⁷⁴Ibid.

⁷⁵Anne Fremantle, Woman’s Way to God (New York: St. Martin, 1977), 251.

⁷⁶Eileen Egan, Such a Vision of the Street: Mother Teresa—The Spirit and the Work (Garden City: Doubleday, 1985), p. 369.

⁷⁷Mia Brandel-Syrier, “The Role of Women in African Independent Churches,” Missionalia 12 (April 1984): 14–15; Peter Falk, The Growth of the Church in Africa (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979), 459–60.

⁷⁸Ibid., 16.

⁷⁹Barrett, Schism and Renewal, 148.

⁸⁰Dorothea A. Lehmann, “Women in the Independent African Independent Churches,” in Victor E. W. Hayward, ed., African Independent Church Movements (London: Edinburgh House, 1963), 68.

⁸¹Adrian Hastings, A History of African Christianity, 1950–1975 (London: Cambridge University, 1979), 75.

⁸²Kurt Koch, The Revival in Indonesia (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1970), 219.

⁸³Ibid., 245–46.

⁸⁴Bliss, The Service and Status of Women, 98.

⁸⁵Forman, “Sing to the Lord a New Song,” 170, 153.

⁸⁶Bliss, The Service and Status of Women, 134–38.

⁸⁷Cecchini, “A Witness for Peace,” 336.

⁸⁸Norene Carter, “The Episcopalian Story,” in Rosemary Ruether and Eleanor McLaughlin, eds., Women of Spirit: Female Leadership in the Jewish and Christian Traditions (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 357.

⁸⁹Siwani, “Mission Issues in South Africa,” 329.

⁹⁰Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz, “Silent Women Will Never Be Heard,” Missiology 7 (July 1979): 195–96.

⁹¹Katherine Gilfeather, “Coming of Age in a Latin Church,” in Webster and Webster, The Church and Women, 62.

⁹²Subbamma, New Patterns for Discipling Hindus, 201.

⁹³Hiebert, “Missionary Women,” 460.

⁹⁴Montgomery, Western Women in Eastern Lands, 227–29.

⁹⁵Elisabeth F. Isais, “The Problems Facing Latin American Women in Leadership,” INTERLIT (September 1981), 8.

Chapter 10

¹Vinson Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement in The United States (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), 101; Agnes N. O. LaBerge, What God Hath Wrought (New York: Garland, 1985), 29.

²John T. Nichol, The Pentecostals (Plainfield, N.J.: Logos, 1966), 63.

³Sarah E. Parham, The Life of Charles F. Parham, Founder of the Apostolic Faith Movement (Joplin, Mo.: Hunter, 1930), 161–62.

⁴A Historical Account of The Apostolic Faith (Portland, Ore.: Apostolic Faith, 1965), 59, quoted in Nichol, The Pentecostals, 35.

⁵Ibid., 35.

⁶Robert B. Mitchell, Heritage and Horizons: The History of Open Bible Standard Churches (Des Moines: Open Bible Publishers, 1982), 30; A Historical Account of the Apostolic Faith, 21, quoted in Nichol, The Pentecostals, 98–99,144.

⁷Ibid., 144.

⁸Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement, 114.

⁹Mitchell, Heritage and Horizons, 41.

¹⁰Quoted in ibid., 47.

¹¹Mitchell, Heritage and Horizons, 47–48.

¹²Janet Wilson James, “Women in American Religious History: An Overview,” in Janet Wilson James, ed., Women in American Religion (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980), 22.

¹³Mary B. Woodworth-Etter, Signs and Wonders: God Wrought in the Ministry for Forty Years (Tulsa: Harrison, 1916), 21, 28, 32.

¹⁴Ibid., 35–36.

¹⁵Ibid., 138.

¹⁶Ibid., 151.

¹⁷Ibid., 120.

¹⁸Ibid., 139.

¹⁹Ibid., 142.

²⁰Ibid., 151–56.

²¹Ibid., 45, 157, quoted in Nichol, The Pentecostals, 59.

²²Quoted in Woodworth-Etter, Signs and Wonders, 7.

²³Quoted in Charles H. Barfoot and Gerald T. Sheppard, “Prophetic Vs. Priestly Religion: The Changing Role of Women Clergy in Classical Pentecostal Churches,” Review of Religious Research 22 (September 1980): 8.

²⁴Ibid., 14.

²⁵Barfoot and Sheppard, “Prophetic Vs. Priestly Religion,” 14.

²⁶Time, October 9, 1944.

²⁷Aimee Semple McPherson, The Story of My Life (Waco: Word, 1973), 26.

²⁸Ibid, 52–67.

²⁹Aimee Semple McPherson, This Is That (Los Angeles: Echo Part Evangelistic Association, 1923), 73–76.

³⁰Robert Barr, Least of All Saints: The Story of Aimee Semple McPherson (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979), 115, 120–21.

³¹Barr, Least of All Saints, 150–51.

³²Quoted in ibid., 161.

³³Quoted in Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement, 198.

³⁴Barr, Least of All Saints, 212–16, vi.

³⁵McPherson, Story of My Life, 232–39.

³⁶Quoted in Barr, Least of All Saints, 282.

³⁷Quoted in Barfoot and Sheppard, “Prophetic Vs. Priestly Religion,” 15.

³⁸U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Religious bodies, 1936, quoted in Barfoot and Sheppard, “Prophetic vs. Priestly Religion,” 3.

³⁹See section below on Anglicans.

⁴⁰Seth Cook Rees, The Ideal Pentecostal Church (Cincinnati: Knapp, 1897), 41.

⁴¹Byron Rees, Hulda A. flees: The Pentecostal Prophetess (Philadelphia: Christian Standard, 1898, 11–25; Paul S. Rees, Seth Cook Rees: The Warrior-Saint (Indianapolis: Pilgrim Book Room, 1934), 41.

⁴²Alma White, Looking Back from Beulah (Bound Brook, N.J.: The Pentecostal Union, 1910), 50–51; Ford Hendrickson, Martyrs and Witnesses (Detroit: Protestant Missionary, 1917), 297.

⁴³Hendrickson, Martyrs and Witnesses, 297.

⁴⁴J. Gordon Melton, Encyclopedia of America’s Religions (Wilmington, N.C.: McGrath, 1978), 231.

⁴⁵Alma White, Demons and Tongues (Zaraphath, N.J.: Pillar of Fire, 1949), 43, 56, 68–69, 82–84, 112–15.

⁴⁶Hendrickson, Martyrs and Witnesses, 298.

⁴⁷Melton, Encyclopedia, 213.

⁴⁸Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement, 111.

⁴⁹Alma White, The New Testament Church (Bound Brook, N.J.: Pentecostal Union, 19121, 217, 223, 227, 230.

⁵⁰Timothy L. Smith, Called Unto Holiness (Kansas City, Mo.: Nazarene, 1962), 113.

⁵¹Ibid., 155.

⁵²Ibid, 157–58.

⁵³Ibid., 156.

⁵⁴Flora Larsson, My Best Men Are Women (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1974), 170.

⁵⁵Margaret Troutt, The General Was a Lady: The Story of Evangeline Booth (Nashville: Holman, 1980), 313–15.

⁵⁶Ibid, 55–63.

⁵⁷Ibid, 74–78.

⁵⁸Ibid, 184.

⁵⁹Edward H. McKinley, Marching to Glory: The History of the Salvation Army in the United States (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), 94–95.

⁶⁰Troutt, The General Was a Lady, 263.

⁶¹McKinley, Marching to Glory, 185.

⁶²James, Women in American Religion, 22.

⁶³Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion, trans. E. Fischoff (Boston: Beacon, 1963), 104.

⁶⁴Mary Agnes Dougherty, “The Social Gospel According to Phoebe,” in Hilah F. Thomas and Rosemary Keller, eds., Women in New Worlds, (Nashville: Abingdon, 1981), 202.

⁶⁵Gladys G. Calkins, Follow Those Women: Church Women in the Ecumenical Movement (New York: National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., 1961), 19.

⁶⁶James, “Women in American Religious History,” in James, Women in American Religion, 10.

⁶⁷Quoted in Rebecca P. Garber, The Social Gospel and Its View of Women and the Women’s Movement, 1880–1919 (Trinity Evangelical Divinity School: M. A. Thesis, 1978), 88–91.

⁶⁸Ibid, 94–95, 126.

⁶⁹Garber, The Social Gospel and Its View of Women, 123, 125.

⁷⁰Ibid., 81.

⁷¹Lyman Abbott, The Home Builder (New York: Houghton-Mifflin, 1908), 3.

⁷²“General Findings from the Survey of the Relative Place of Women in the Church” (April 7, 1927), 1, quoted in Elizabeth Howell Verdesi, In But Still Out: Women in the Church (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1975), 100.

⁷³Quoted in James J. Kenneally, “Eve, Mary, and the Historians: American Catholicism and Women,” in James, Women in American Religion, 194.

⁷⁴Quoted in Rosemary Ruether, “Entering the Sanctuary: The Roman Catholic Story,” in Ruether and McLaughlin, Women of Spirit, 373–74.

⁷⁵Augustine Rossler, “Woman,” in The Catholic Encyclopedia ed. Charles G. Herbermann, 16 vols. (New York: Encyclopedia, 1913), 15: 687.

⁷⁶Kenneally, “Eve, Mary, and the Historians,” in James, Women and American Religion, 201.

⁷⁷Mary Luke Tobin, “Women in the Church: Vatican II and After,” The Ecumenical Review 37 (July 1985): 295.

⁷⁸Ruether, “Entering the Sanctuary,” 380.

⁷⁹Ibid., 381.

⁸⁰Brian Heeney, “The Beginning of Church Feminism,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 33 (January 1982): 101–5.

⁸¹“Daughters of Prophecy,” The Witness (Special Issue, 1984), 4.

⁸²Mossie A. Wyker, Church Women in the Scheme of Things, (St. Louis: Bethany, 1953), 46.

⁸³A. Maude Royden, A Threefold Cord (New York: Macmillan, 1948), 59–61.

⁸⁴Dale Johnson, Women in English Religion, 309–10.

⁸⁵Quoted in ibid., 311.

⁸⁶Ibid., 300.

⁸⁷“Women Deacons: A New Anglican Church Policy,” Time (July 15, 1985), 51.

⁸⁸Wyker, Church Women, 35.

⁸⁹Barbara C. Harris, “Pentecost Revisited,” The Witness (Special Issue, 1984), 10.

⁹⁰Heather Huyck, “Indelible Change: Woman Priests in the Episcopal Church,” Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church 51 (December 1982): 397.

⁹¹Ibid.

⁹²Lois A. Boyd and R. Douglas Brackenridge, Presbyterian Women in America: Two Centuries of a Quest for Status (London: Greenwood, 1983), 124.

⁹³Janet Wilson James, ed., Women in American Religion (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980), 23–24.

⁹⁴Wyker, Church Women, 34.

⁹⁵Boyd and Brackenridge, Presbyterian Women, 125.

⁹⁶Ibid., 125–26.

⁹⁷Ibid., 130.

⁹⁸W. Reginald Wheeler, A Man Sent From God: A Biography of Robert E. Speer (London: Revell, 1956), 163.

⁹⁹Ibid.

¹⁰⁰Ibid., 132–37.

¹⁰¹Ibid., 140–41.

¹⁰²Ibid., 153.

¹⁰³Verdesi, In But Still Out, 18.

¹⁰⁴Ibid., 19.

¹⁰⁵Hope Evangeline, Daisy (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1978), 74–76, 78, 84.

¹⁰⁶“In Memoriam: Jessie Bartlett Hess,” 1881–1969, unpublished paper.

¹⁰⁷Elisabeth Schmidt, When God Calls a Woman: The Struggle of a Woman Pastor in France and Algeria, trans. Allen Hackett (New York: Pilgrim, 1981), 15.

¹⁰⁸Ibid., 35.

¹⁰⁹Ibid., 97.

¹¹⁰Ibid., 102, 108, 215.

¹¹¹James I. Cook, “The President’s Commentary,” Church Herald (October 1, 1982), 19.

¹¹²Gordon J. Spykman and Lillian V. Grissen, Men and Women: Partners in Service (Grand Rapids: Christian Reformed Church, 1981), 11, 115, 120–21.

¹¹³Frederick S. Weiser, Love’s Response: A Story of Lutheran Deaconesses in America (Philadelphia: United Lutheran Church in America, 1962), 70–82.

¹¹⁴Virginia Brereton and Christa Klein, “American Women in Ministry: A History of Protestant Beginning Points,” in Ruether and McLaughlin, Women of Spirit, 320; E. Clifford Nelson, Lutheranism in North America, 1914–1970 (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1972), 261.

¹¹⁵Brereton and Klein, “American Women,” 315, 322.

¹¹⁶Wyker, Church Women, 13–15.

¹¹⁷Wyker, Church Women, 33; Lorraine Lollis, The Shape of Adam’s Rib: A Lively History of Women’s Work in the Christian Church (St. Louis: Bethany, 1970), 11.

¹¹⁸Wyker, Church Women, 33.

¹¹⁹Albert W. Beaven, “Helen of Rochester,” in Helen Barrett Montgomery, Helen Barrett Montgomery: From Campus to World Citizenship (New York: Revell, 1940), 92.

¹²⁰James, “Women in American Religious History,” 20.

¹²¹Leon McBeth, Women in Baptist Life (Nashville: Broadman, 1979), 153.

¹²²McBeth, Women in Baptist Life, 155.

¹²³Bruce Buursma, “Women Pastors Split Southern Baptists,” Chicago Tribune, February 18, 1984.

¹²⁴Quoted in Aida B. Spencer, Beyond the Curse: Women Called to Ministry (Nashville: Nelson, 1985), 19.

¹²⁵Mary Lou Cummings “Ordained into Ministry: Ann J. Allebach,” in Mary Lou Cummings, ed., Full Circle: Stories of Mennonite Women, (Newton, Kansas: Faith and Life, 1978), 2–8.

¹²⁶Quoted in ibid., 9–10.

¹²⁷Cummings, Full Circle, 10.

¹²⁸Elaine S. Rich, Mennonite Women: A Story of God’s Faithfulness, 1683–1983 (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald, 1983), 9.

¹²⁹Dayton, Discovering an Evangelical Heritage, 93; Fredrick Franson, Prophesying Daughters: A Few Words Concerning Women’s Position in Regard to Evangelization (Stockholm: n.p., 1897), 2.

¹³⁰Franson, Prophesying Daughters, 20.

¹³¹Ibid., 21.

¹³²Delia E. Olson, A Woman of Her Times (Minneapolis: Free Church, 1977), 31, 77.

¹³³Quoted in ibid., 45

¹³⁴Ibid., 46.

¹³⁵Frank T. Lindberg, Looking Back Fifty Years (Minneapolis: Franklin, n.d.), 58.

¹³⁶Ibid., 59.

¹³⁷James O. Henry, For Such a Time as This: A History of the Independent Fundamental Church of America (Westchester, Ill.: IFCA, 1983), 49.

¹³⁸Wyker, Church Women, 48–49.

¹³⁹James Morris, The Preachers (New York: St. Martin’s, 1973), 242.

¹⁴⁰Jamie Buckingham, Daughter of Destiny: Kathryn Kuhlman…Her Story (Plainfield, N. J.: Logos, 1976), 125–26.

¹⁴¹Helen Kooiman Hosier, Kathryn Kuhlman (Old Tappan, N.J.: Revell, 1971), 99.

¹⁴²Morris, The Preachers, 246.

¹⁴³Buckingham, Daughter of Destiny, 158, 198–99; Kathryn Kuhlman, I Believe in Miracles (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 7.

¹⁴⁴Richard Quebedeaux, By What Authority: The Rise of Personality Cults in American Christianity (New York: Harper & Row, 1982), 39.

¹⁴⁵Ethel M. Baldwin and David V. Benson, Henrietta Mears and How She Did It (Glendale, Calif.: Gospel Light, 1966), 46.

¹⁴⁶Ibid., 77.

¹⁴⁷Quoted in Dorothy R. Pape, In Search of God’s Ideal Woman (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1976), 245.

¹⁴⁸Quoted in Richard Quebedeaux, I Found It!: The Story of Bill Bright and Campus Crusade (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 10.

¹⁴⁹Corrie ten Boom, Tramp for the Lord (Old Tappan, N. J.: Revell, 1974), 16, 18.

¹⁵⁰Ibid., 9, 35, 42, 46.

¹⁵¹Ibid., 47, 127, 79, 134.

¹⁵²Richard N. Ostling, “ ‘This Is a God I Can Trust’: Joni Eareckson’s Special Ministry for the Disabled.” Time (December 29, 1980), 67.

¹⁵³Karen Mills, “Christian Faith Helps People Reduce,” Grand Rapids Press, August 10, 1980.

¹⁵⁴Richard N. Ostling, “Jerry Falwell’s Crusade,” Time (September 2, 1985), 57; Beverly LaHaye, The Restless Woman (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 89.

¹⁵⁵Jo Berry Growing, Sharing, Serving (Elgin, Ill.: Cook, 1979), 66–67.

¹⁵⁶A. Wetherell Johnson, Created for Commitment (Wheaton: Tyndale, 1982), 225.

¹⁵⁷“Neighborhood Bible Studies: 25 Years of Ministry, 1960–1985,” (Dobbs Ferry, NY.: Neighborhood Bible Studies, 1985). A pamphlet.

¹⁵⁸EWC Update 8 (June-August 1984): 4.

¹⁵⁹Ostling, “Jerry Fallwell’s Crusade,” 57.

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