Of The Education Of Youth
Of the Education of Youth
INTRODUCTION
THE SHORT ESSAY ON THE ESSENTIALS OF A CHRIS-
tian education belongs to the year 1523,! when Zwingli was actively engaged in the reformation of church life in Zurich. Ostensibly it was written as a personal gift for his future step-son,? Gerold Meyer von Knonau, who had just returned from a visit to the baths at Baden. It is significant, however, that the time when it appeared, August 1, 1523, was the very time when Zwingli was at work upon the reorganization of the Great Minster and the Minster school.
The particular importance of the latter lay in the fact that Zwingli looked to it both as an agency to disseminate Reformed truth and also as a place of training for future pastors of the Reformed Church.3 In these circumstances it is not illegitimate to regard the essay as something more than a personal admonition. It is a statement of the principles underlying the projected educational reform. That the essay is for the most part impersonal in tone and that it was obviously written with a view to publication makes it quite certain that something of this was in the mind of Zwingli himself at the time when he wrote. 4
Zwingli's pronounced stress upon the need for education and the fact that he had very definite ideas concerning it are hardly surprising when we remember that he had himself come to a knowledge of evangelical truth partly by way
1 Cf. C.R., II, pp. 526 f.
2 Strictly, Gerold was already his step-son, for a secret marriage between Zwingli and Anna Meyer seems to have taken place prior to the official ceremony on April 2, 1524.
3 Cf. D.C.R. 194.
4C.R., II, pp. 526 f.
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of the Renaissance learning.5 It may be recalled, too, that he had had some experience as a teacher during his university days in Basel, and that at Glarus and to some extent at Einsiedeln and Zurich he had held classes for the more promising young men of the congregation.® Again, in Zurich Zwingli had quickly pressed for the introduction of Greek studies, more particularly with a view to a better knowledge of the New
Testament,? and already in 1522 he had brought in the wellknown scholar Ceporinus®8 to take classes in Greek and Hebrew.
It seems that Zwingli himself attended the Hebrew course, for his efforts to learn this language had not previously been attended by any great success. Unfortunately Ceporinus was not able to stay in Zurich more than a few months, for he had to return to Basel to superintend the publication of his Greek
Grammar, a work which he dedicated to Zwingli. However, in June, 1523, Zwingli was able to introduce his programme for the reorganization of the Minster school, and this was formally accepted by the Council on September 29. After its reconstitution, the school consisted of two main sections, the one a grammar school, providing instruction in the rudiments of a classical education,® and the other a theological seminary, providing more advanced theological teaching for ministers and ordinands.!° In both cases the main emphasis was upon those humanistic and biblical studies which form a basis for general Christian education and which have also a particular value in training for the work of the ministry. Ceporinus himself returned in 1525 to lecture in Greek and Hebrew, but in December of the same year he died at the early age of 26.
A point worth noting is that in the essay, although Zwingli touches on all aspects of training, he gives the place of preeminence to a definite instruction in Christian and evangelical truth. The suggestion has sometimes been made that Zwingli was more of a humanist than a Reformer, or at any rate that he was a Reformer because he was first a humanist.!! Now it
5 Although the extent of Renaissance influence is an open question. Cf.
O. Farner, Huldrych Kwingli, II, esp. pp. 152 f.
6 Ibid., I, p. 194 f.; II, esp. pp. 152 f.
OAT ACs Lis 100. ttt:
8 Ceporinus (Jakob Wiesendanger) was born c¢.
1499, had studied at Winterthur, Cologne, Vienna and Ingolstadt and gained proficiency in Greek and Hebrew as well as Latin. In Basel he worked as a Greek proof-reader.
9D.C.R. 194, 7.
10 Jbid., 5.
11 Cf. S. M. Jackson, Zwingli, pp. 77 f.
Z.B.— 7
ZWINGLI can hardly be denied that his Renaissance contacts and studies did help Zwingli towards an apprehension of New Testament truth. But it is easy to exaggerate this humanistic aspect at the expense of the deeper theological and spiritual needs which drove
Zwingli to the Bible and evangelical truth.1? In his thinking as in his actions Zwingli was fully aware of the primacy and centrality of the Gospel itself. For that reason the first and most important task of the teacher is to inculcate a knowledge of theological truth and ethical duty. All other aims are subservient to that primary and ultimate goal. Education does not consist only in making good scholars, not even good classical scholars. It consists first of all in making good Christians. And for that reason the first section of Zwingli's essay is devoted to an exposition of the main teachings of the Gospel, and even in the two succeeding sections, in which he treats of the more detailed matters of curriculum and conduct, the individual themes are constantly related to Christian faith and discipleship.
Of course, the work is not meant to be an exhaustive treatise, but for that very reason the emphases and judgments of Zwingli have a particular interest and value. On the more purely academic side he gives pride of place to the three ancient languages, Latin, Greek and Hebrew: !3 Latin because of its indispensability to the scholar, Greek and Hebrew because of their usefulness in the more intensive study of Holy Scripture.
He has not a great deal to say concerning other subjects. The ability to speak effectively he regarded as essential—no doubt he had the pulpit in view—and he included some interesting advice on this difficult art. A certain value could be accorded to mathematics, but it appears that the mathematician occupied a lowly status and could not count on any certain livelihood in the sixteenth century, and Zwingli could not recommend any serious study of this subject. Indeed, by present-day standards the most serious deficiencies of the whole programme are on the scientific and to some extent the modern side. Apparently Zwingli did envisage a limited consideration of natural science because of its then theological value,!4 but there is no evidence of any interest in science as such, and history and geography seem to be entirely ignored. Similarly,
12 Farner, of. cit., II, pp. 127f., 234 f., 347 f.
13 The ordinance of reform instituted lectureships in these three languages,
D.C.R. 194, 5.
14T.e., to prove the existence and providence of God.
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there is no place for a study of the vernacular—spelling at least might have been a help—for Latin still remained the universal language of scholarship and literature. Of course, it must be remembered that Zwingli had in mind the type of training that would be most suitable for the theologian, and with all its limitations the suggested programme undoubtedly forms a useful course for the particular purpose in view.
Apart from the academic side, the essay has further points of interest. It testifies to the fact that Zwingli's concern was not narrowly religious or scholastic. He could see the need for recreation and physical exercise as well as doctrinal and academic training. In this respect the ideal of Zwingli represents all that is best in the Renaissance-Reformation movement.
As Zwingli saw it, ideal manhood can be attained only by the full and proper development of the three main aspects of man's nature. It is not enough merely to cultivate the soul or spirit, though that must be the first priority. Nor it is enough to cultivate the soul and the mind together. The mind must be trained, and even the mind must have interests outside the purely academic. For that reason all games which had an intellectual or cultural value—chess for example—were commended by Zwingli, so long, of course, as they were not allowed to become ends in themselves. But in addition, Zwingli saw that the body must be trained and fit as well as the mind and spirit. Bodily exercise might not profit greatly if divorced from godliness, but that did not mean that it could be dismissed as completely worthless. In this matter Zwingli retained a right sense of proportion, and he could advocate strongly all bodily exercises which contributed to physical health and vigour, notably running, jumping and wrestling. Rather strangely, he had no great enthusiasm for swimming, the utility of which he seemed slow to recognize in spite of the frequent disasters in many of the Swiss lakes and rivers.15 In this same connection Zwingli pointed out the value of plain and wholesome foods and the need for moderation in eating and drinking. The whole emphasis upon physical fitness contrasts favourably with that comparative neglect of the body which was a characteristic feature of much mediaeval piety.
The remarks on morals and manners again bear witness to the sane and balanced outlook of the Swiss Reformer. Zwingli would not tolerate dicing and card-games, no doubt because of their evil associations, but on the other hand he saw the 15 Cf. Farner, II, p. 24.
ZWINGLI need for social gatherings in which the young (and old) of both sexes might freely mingle in public. Nothing could be more foolish or dangerous than to attempt to suppress entirely the instincts which find expression in public festivities. As concerns marriage, Zwingli regarded it as the normal fulfilment of one aspect of human life. Rightly, he deprecated any laxity in sexual relationships, but rightly too, he found the cure in a right use rather than attempted repression. In this respect he was taught by his own difficult experiences when bound by the ecclesiastical law of chastity.16 Zwingli's remarks on war are also of interest, the more so as the manner of his death has left the impression of a certain lack of scruple in the use of military force. Zwingli did stress the advantages of martial training, but he justified such activities only on the grounds that the unsettled state of Europe demanded defensive precautions. The truth is that although Zwingli was more ready than Luther to make use of diplomatic and military weapons, his experiences in Italy had taught him the bitterness and futility of war,!7 and he could not accept it except when compelled by patriotic or evangelical duty.
The essay as a whole is marred by that disjointedness which characterizes almost all Zwingli's writings, but in content it is a fine statement of the Reformation ideal not merely for education but for life as a whole. In the essay we see the faith and piety of the Reformation informed by all that was best in the humanist movement. The narrowness, obscurantism and disproportionate other-worldliness which had marked so many mediaeval writings had yielded before the breadth of interest, the more vital scholarship and the balance in the understanding of human life which were the special gifts of the Renaissance.
Yet Zwingli avoided the danger of anthropocentricity which was the peculiar temptation of the humanist. When all is said, the Zwinglian basis of education and life is an inward faith in God and an acceptance of the obligations of faith.
Upon that foundation a larger and more spacious building was erected, but the foundation itself remained substantially the same.
Editions '8
The Education of Youth was originally written in Latin and in this form it was first published at Basel in 1523. Ceporinus
16 Jbid., pp. 140 f.
17 Ibid., pp. 180 f.; C.R., XII, p. 267.
18 C.R., II, pp. 526 f.
OF THE EDUCATION
OF YOUTH Io! arranged the publication and also contributed a Preface. The book was well received, and there were fresh editions in 1524
(Augsburg), 1525 (Zurich) and 1561 (Zurich). There is a fifth edition without name or date, probably deriving from Augsburg. Ceporinus made the first translation into German, and this was published in 1524, most likely at Augsburg. A revised translation appeared at Zurich two years later, and this version has an added interest because it is almost certainly the work of Zwingli himself.19 There is no direct evidence in favour of this supposition, but it is strongly suggested by the personal nature of the dedication, the use of many characteristic words and phrases, and the freedom with which the Latin original is expanded, compressed or altered. An early translation into English was made during the reign of Edward VI under the title Certain Precepts (London 1548).
The basis of the present translation is the original Latin text of 1523 (A), but Zwingli's German version of 1526 (B) is also used. The latter text is particularly valuable, partly because it provides a counter-check in the construing of the Latin, and partly because it offers some useful variations, usually expansions of the original. On the whole it has been thought better to retain the classical allusions mainly abandoned in the German versions. The main variations between A and B are indicated in the textual notes, and where helpful, reference is made to Ceporinus' more literal rendering of 1524
C).
9) 19 So W. Koehler in his selections 1918-1919.
Of the Upbringing and Education of Youth in Good Manners and Christian Discipline :
An Admonition by Ulrich Kwingh THESES To the noble and pious youth Gerold Meyer,(1) I, Ulrich
Zwingli, wish grace and peace from God and our Lord Jesus Christ. On your return from the baths! at Baden (2) you have been received everywhere with presents, some honouring you in one way and some in another. It would therefore be regarded as most discourteous? on my part, my dear Gerold,?} if I too did not welcome you with a gift: the more so as it is the usual custom amongst friends to honour in that way those who return from or are still at the baths. I number you amongst my friends for two reasons: first, because you are seriously and (as I hope) not unprofitably devoted to learning; 4 and second, because you are one of those who serve under our Glareanus.5(3) I have considered at length what gift would be most acceptable to you, and I have reached the conclusion that that which will serve you best must be either religious or literary in character, or perhaps both. For by nature you are born to divine favour and virtue, and already you reveal the acceptable fruits of discipline and culture. However, no matter how diligently I applied myself to the task I could never achieve anything of literary merit.
Therefore I thought it might be profitable both for yourself and others if I fulfilled my obligation towards you by setting out certain precepts (4) which would be wholesome and helpful for 1 A, a thermis; B, von Baden.
2 A, incivilis; B, eine grosse grobheyt und unvernunft.
3 A, Gerolde adolescens suavissime.
4 A, literis; B, der leer und kunst; C, die schrifft.
5A, sub Glareani nostri signis meres; B, is much expanded: under unserem Glarcano als under einem gelerten und berichten houptmann unnd leerer in der zal siner jungen helden dich arbeitest.
N.B.—The capitals refer to the editions as lettered on preceding page.
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both body and soul and which would serve to the advancement of virtue and piety. For some time I have been planning a book on the right upbringing and education of youth, but my plans were hindered by the many distracting matters which came up (as things then were). But as I have considered what gift I should make my earlier project has taken shape again.
I notice that many writers, when they have finished their work, are anxious to dedicate it to someone who is truly worthy of it.
But with us the very opposite is the case. For the one to whom this book will be dedicated is already found, but I myself lack the time and leisure, the nine years which a workman should spend upon his work.(5) Being in a strait between the two demands, the first, that I must have something to give you, and the second, that I have had neither the time nor the leisure to fulfil the task properly, I have found, I think, a way to satisfy both of us. I have stolen sufficient time hurriedly to gather together some precepts and admonitions—but not too many, and all carefully selected so as not to drive away, for it is often the case that when little is poured out, the desire to drink is all the greater.(6) You must not weigh and judge these counsels according to their outward form, but according to their content, and the spirit which has given them birth. For anyone who is not ungodly can promise a godly work: but even the most learned would be ashamed to promise a work of art. These precepts of mine fall into three parts:
The first tells how the tender mind of youth is to be instructed in the things of God; The second, how it is to be instructed in the things which concern itself; And the third, how it is to be instructed in conduct towards others.
It is not my purpose to set out the directions which ought to be given from the cradle or during the earliest years at school, ¢ but those which are suitable for young men who have already attained to discretion and can stand on their own feet.' I count you amongst this number. You will, I hope, diligently read these directions and so model yourself upon them that you will be a living example to others. May God® himself do this work in you.(7) Amen.
Zurich, August 1, MCXXIII 6 A, neque... a cunis ordiri, neque a rudimentis; B, sdliche underwysungen, die man den kinden von den wiegen an geben sélle, ouch not wie man die anfahenden schijler erstlich berichtet.
7 lit. "swim without corks."
8 A, Christus optimus maximus; B, gott.
ZWINGLI Part J First and chiefly, it is beyond our human capacity to bring the hearts of men to faith in the one God (8) even though we had an eloquence surpassing that of Pericles. (g) For that is something which only our heavenly Father can do as he draws us to himself. Yet it is still the case, in the words of St. Paul, that "'faith cometh by hearing, and hearing by the Word of God,"' though this does not mean that very much can be accomplished by the preaching of the external word apart from the internal address and compulsion of the Spirit.(10) Therefore it is necessary not merely to instil faith into the young by the pure words which proceed from the mouth of God, but to pray that he who alone can give faith will illuminate by his Spirit those whom we instruct in his Word.
It seems to me to be quite in keeping with Christ's own teaching to bring young people to a knowledge of God in and through external phenomena.(11) For as we bring before them the fair structure of the universe, pointing them to each part in particular, we learn that all these things are changing and destructible,1° but that he who conjoined them (and many other things besides) in so lasting and marvellous a whole is necessarily unchanging and immutable. Again, we learn that he who has so skilfully 11 ordered all these things need never be suspected of forgetting or disregarding his handiwork, for even with men it is counted a reproach if the head of the household 12 does not keep a careful watch over all domestic matters. (12) Thus the young man is taught that all things are ordained 13 by the providence of God: for of the two sparrows sold for a farthing not one can fall to the ground except by decision of the divine providence (which has also numbered the very hairs of our head), nothing being too insignificant for its care.
Hence it is clear that the divine providence appoints the things necessary for the body as well as the soul. We see that by it the ravens are liberally fed and the lilies gloriously arrayed.
By such forms of the divine providence the spirit of man is ° B expands: den hochbertimpten und wol beredten Periclem.
10 seats mutatione obnoxia; B, dass die ding alle wandelbar und zerstérlich ind.
11 Bs tanta solertia; B, so kliiglich, so artlich.
12 B, hussvater—this is an expansion of A, 13 A, destinare; B, expands: fiirsieht, fiirordnet und bescheert.
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taught that it ought never to give way either to anxiety or to ignoble greed. And if the temptation to greed or anxiety is hewn down and uprooted as soon as it begins to spring up, we shall keep our soul from a harmful poison. !4
For we shall then know in our heart that God is not only the Lord but also the Father of all those who trust in him. We shall know that men ought to run to him for help no less than they do to an earthly father. We shall know that in his words he has promised us that help, indeed he wills that we should make our prayer to him. If, then, we are afflicted by sickness of mind or body, we are taught to look only to him for healing. If we are oppressed by enemies or harassed by envy and hatred, we learn to flee only to him. If we desire wisdom or learning, we are taught to ask it of him alone. Indeed, it is from him that we are to seek even our wife and children, and if riches and honour are showered liberally upon us, we ought to pray to him that our heart may be kept from corruption or from turning aside from him.
I need not say more. Instructed in this way,15 the soul knows that it ought to ask all things from God. And it knows how shameful it is to ask anything which God cannot fittingly give. In fact, it will be ashamed either to ask or to have anything that it cannot fittingly receive from God. It will keep before it and lay up for itself only the things which are a true source of blessing.
The young man whom we teach will know and understand the mystery of the Gospel as follows.(13) First, he must know the original estate of man, how he transgressed the commandment of God and became a prey to death, how by his transgression he infected and corrupted his offspring—the whole human race—for the dead cannot give birth to the living and we do not find Moors born in Britain.!°(14) From this the young man will learn and acknowledge his own sickness.
And he will see that sickness, too, when he realizes that everything that we do has its origin in frailty, lust and temptation, but God himself is far above all such temptation,!7 for in him
14 B, und wo wir dise anfachtung (C, bewegung) dess gyts und sorg faltiger angst, glych so sy anfacht griinen, abhauen und ussriiten, werdend wir unsere gemit vor einem schdadlichen gifft verhiiten.
15 B expands: wo und gemiit sélicher mass, wie obergesagt, bericht ist.
16 A, nec Aethiopem vidimus imquam apud Britannos natum; B, als wir dann by den Britanniern nye kein Moren geborn gesehend habend. Ethiopian is used in the sense of black man. Cf. Erasmus, Adagiorum Chil. I, Centur. IV,
Prov. 50.
17 Following the expanded version in B,
ZWINGLI is no temptation. Hence it follows that if we would dwell with God, we must be set free from all temptations. There can be no fellowship between the godly and the wicked, nor can the wicked bear with the godly (for the Neros order the Senecas to be punished, and the Ennii and the Scipios are covered by the same tomb).!8(15) Similarly, only those can dwell with God who are holy (as God himself is holy), whose lives are without blemish and whose hearts are pure: "'Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God."
But beset on every hand by gross temptations, how can we attain to such purity? for we are set between the hammer and the anvil, half beast and half angel.19 God requires of us a perfect righteousness, but we are corrupted and full of sin and whether we will or no we can do nothing but evil. Therefore we have no choice but to give up ourselves into the hand of God, to abandon ourselves entirely to his grace. And here it is that there breaks forth the light of the Gospel, the good news proclaimed to us 2° that Christ releases us from the desperate plight in which we were held.?! And Christ redeems us far better than any Saviour Jupiter.2? (16) First he restores the conscience, which is reduced almost to despair. He unites it with himself in an unshakable hope, thus setting it at rest.
For he himself is free from all the pollutions and onslaughts of sin, being conceived of the Holy Ghost and born of a pure
Virgin. And first he puts forth his righteousness 23 (17) for us, bearing our griefs and sicknesses: then he redeems all those who steadfastly believe. For those who believe in the bountiful gift which God has made our poor race in Christ are saved and made co-heirs with Christ, to enjoy eternal felicity with the Father : for he wills that where he is, there his servants may be also.
The righteousness 24 of Christ, put forth for us who are sinful and lost, releases us from sin and the guilt and suffering of sin25 and makes us worthy before God. And it does so for this reason, that Christ is able to attain the standard of divine righteous18 B omits both these allusions.
19 Conflating the variant forms in A (inter malleum et incudem) and B (zwischen tiir und angel).
20 "proclaimed to us'' is added by B.
21 B expands this thought.
22 B omits the title ''servator."'
23 A, innocentia; B, unschuld und frombkeyt.
24 A, innocentia; B, die unschuld, frombkeyt und reynigkeyt.
25 Following the slightly expanded version in B.
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ness,26 (18) being free from all corrupt affections. And he, the righteous and more than righteous, that is, God himself, was made like one of us. Hence it follows that his righteousness
(which lacked in us) was made ours: "for of God he is made unto us wisdom, righteousness, sanctification and redemption."'(19) Now therefore we have access by him to God, for he is ours, a sure token of divine grace, an advocate, a pledge, a security, an intercessor, a mediator, the first and the last,?7 the alpha and omega, our all.28
Those who understand and believe the mystery of the Gospel thus far are born of God: for blinded by human folly the mind cannot of itself attain to the deep counsel of divine grace. By this we learn that those who are born again of the Gospel do not sin: for "whosoever is born of God sinneth not," and whosoever believes the Gospel is born of God.(20) Hence it follows that those who are born again of the Gospel do not sin, that is, sin is not imputed to them to death and perdition, for Christ has redeemed them 29 at the price of his death.
As long as we are absent from the Lord in this mortal body we cannot be free from temptations. Therefore we cannot be entirely without sin. But Christ himself is ours and makes good all our deficiencies. For he is an eternal God and Spirit. And that means that he is of sufficient value to redeem the offences of all men, more so indeed than the offences themselves can possibly require. (21) But such confidence in Christ does not make us idle.3° (22)
On the contrary it equips and constrains us to do good and to live rightly, for such confidence is not of man. For in most things the human mind depends upon the external senses. But how can it come to put its confidence in something which none of the senses can perceive? In view of this, we can very well see that such faith and confidence in Christ can derive only from God. Now where God works, you need have no fear that things will not be done rightly.
For God is an entelechy,3! (23) that is, a perfect and immutable force which moves all things and itself remains unmoved.
And as such, he will never allow the heart which he has drawn 26 A, justitia; B, frombkeyt und unschuld.
27 A, prora et puppis.
28 The different versions are here conflated: A, prora et puppis, a et w; e unser all; and C, which adds der anfang und das end after das Alpha und mega.
29B mitre 'and cleansed."
30 A, segnes; B, ful, noch farldssing.
31 A, endelechia; B, ein vollkommnende, yemerwdarende bewegnus oder bewegende kraft.
ZWINGLI to himself to be unmoved or static. This statement has to be confirmed, not by proofs but by practice. For only believers know and experience the fact that Christ will not let his people be idle. They alone know how joyful and pleasant a thing it is to engage in his service.
Therefore those who have rightly understood the mystery of the Gospel will exert themselves to live rightly. As far as possible, then, we should learn the Gospel with all exactness and diligence. And as occasion offers we should study what services will be most pleasing to God: and undoubtedly these are the very ones which he himself renders to us, righteousness, fidelity and mercy.32 For God is a Spirit, and he can be truly worshipped only with the sacrifice of a consecrated spirit.
The young man should see to it, then, that he studies to grow up a man of God, righteous in life and as nearly like God as possible. For God does good to all and is profitable to all.
He does hurt only to those who first do hurt to him. So, too, the man who is most like God is the one who studies to be profitable to all, to be all things to all men, and to keep himself from all forms of evil. When we consider our own powers, these things are very difficult, but ''to him that believeth all things are possible."
Part II Once a young man is instructed in the solid virtue which is formed by faith,(24) it follows that he will regulate himself and richly adorn himself from within: for only he whose whole life is ordered finds it easy to give help and counsel to others. (25)
But a man cannot rightly order his own soul unless he exercises himself day and night in the Word of God. He can do that most readily if he is well versed in such languages as Hebrew and Greek,(26) for a right understanding of the Old Testament is difficult without the one, and a right understanding of the New is equally difficult without the other.
But we are instructing those who have already learned the rudiments, and everywhere Latin has the priority. In these circumstances I do not think that Latin should be altogether neglected. For an understanding of Holy Scripture it is of less value than Hebrew and Greek, but for other purposes it is just as useful. And it often happens that we have to do the business 33 of Christ amongst those who speak Latin. No Christian
32 B adds to this short list of virtues.
33 A, negotium; B, gschdfft; C, sach.
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should use these languages simply for his own profit or pleasure: for languages are gifts of the Holy Ghost.
After Latin we should apply ourselves to Greek. We should do this for the sake of the New Testament, as I have said already.
And if I may say so, to the best of my knowledge the Greeks have always handled the doctrine of Christ better than the Latins.(27) For that reason we should always direct our young men to this source. But in respect of Greek as well as Latin we should take care to garrison our souls with innocence and faith, for in these tongues there are many things which we learn only to our hurt: wantonness, ambition, violence, cunning, vain philosophy and the like. But the soul, like Ulysses,(28) can steer safely past all these if it is only forewarned, that is, if at the first sound of the voices it pays heed to the warning: Hear this in order to shun and not to receive.
I put Hebrew last because Latin is in general use and Greek follows most conveniently. Otherwise I would willingly have given Hebrew the precedence, for in many places even amongst the Greeks those who are ignorant of Hebrew forms of speech have great difficulty 34 in attempting to draw out the true sense of Scripture. But it is not my purpose to speak exhaustively of these languages.
If a man would penetrate to the heavenly wisdom, with which no earthly wisdom ought rightly to be considered, let alone compared, it is with such arms that he must be equipped. And even then he must still approach with a humble 35 and thirsting spirit. (29) If he does come, however, he will everywhere find patterns of right conduct, that is, he will find Christ himself, the perfect exemplar of all virtues. And if he knows Christ fully both in his words and deeds, he will know that in all his acts and counsels, so far as human frailty 3° allows, he must venture to manifest some part of the virtues of Christ.
He will learn of Christ both in speech and in silence, each at the proper time. In early youth, he will be ashamed to speak those things which are more fitting in adults, for he will note that Christ did not begin to preach until about his thirtieth year. It is true that when he was only twelve he attracted the attention of the doctors of the law, but from this instance we do not learn to rush in hastily, but from early
34 A, sudet; B, gross arbeit haben muss.
35 A, humili; B, nidertrachtigem.
36 A, tenuitati; B, blodigkeit; C, unvermiigen.
IIO ZWINGLI youth to exert ourselves in the high matters which are worthy of God.
For as silence is always the greatest adornment of a wife, so nothing is more becoming to youth than to try to be silent for a time, so that mind and tongue may be instructed both individually and together, and thus learn to co-operate with each other. It is not my intention to enforce a five years' silence, like that which Pythagoras demanded of his disciples,(30) but to warn against a too great readiness in speech. And I forbid a young man to speak at all unless he has something useful and necessary to say.
Quite naturally, a young man acquires the manner of speech of his teacher. He must be careful, then, not to follow him in what is bad, for even in speech there is sure to be some defect.3"
And this warning must not be treated too lightly, for amongst the ancients it is recorded that some imitated their masters' defects not only in speech but in life. To recognize deficiency in language is easy, but in expression and enunciation (we are not speaking technically, for which this is not the place) the common faults are these: the rate of speaking is either too fast or too slow; the tone is either too low and weak or too high and strong, irrespective of the subject matter; the style is monotonous: and the accompanying gestures are hackneyed, or perhaps the gesticulation is not appropriate to what is being said.(31) It has been observed that when elephants are alone they anxiously apply themselves to learn things for which they are beaten.*® (32) In the same way the young man should constantly practise how to compose his mouth and features, and also how to use his hands, so that he may rightly indicate whatever is required and not merely beat the air.
And in all these things he must study moderation, that what he does may serve the truth and not merely please men: for how can the Christian soul countenance such meretricious devices? So then, when I ask that the young man should practise, I mean only that each one should learn privately to master or to eliminate his external faults, which are always the sure marks of an undeveloped or defective spirit.
Above all else, the spirit itself must be sound and ordered.?9
Where such is the case, it is easy to control the external movement of the features, so that instead of knitting our brows or 37 A, vitit; B, lastren oder prasten.
38 B expands the original.
39 A, integram; B, styff; CQ, rechtschaffen.
OF THE EDUCATION
OF YOUTH III twisting our mouths or shaking our heads or tossing our hands hither and thither we direct all our gestures with the simple and unaffected moderation of the peasant. Thus far concerning speech and silence.
Superfluity of wine (33) is something which the young man must avoid like poison. In the young its effect is to inflame the body, which by nature is already prone to violence and lust. It also brings to premature age. And from the very outset it so corrupts the body that instead of finding in age the peace which we supposed we meet with nothing but trouble. For those who are accustomed to excess of wine will inevitably succumb at length to some dangerous sickness, epilepsy,4+° paralysis, 4! dropsy,'4? elephantiasis and the like. Therefore if you would be old long, be old betimes.
Other foods ought to be plain, 43 (34) for in youth the stomach is naturally designed to be fit, and what need is there of partridge, thrush, titlark, goat, roebuck and other delicacies?
Much better to leave such things until old age, when the teeth and jaws are worn out and the throat has hardened with long use and the stomach has grown cold and the body is halfdead; it is then that these things are needed. For how shall we nourish our old age if for lack of self-control wanton youth has grown weary of the very things which age desires and in which it delights?
Hunger we should stay by eating but not banish completely.
For it is written that Galenus (35) lived for a hundred and twenty years because he was never satisfied when he left the table. I do not mean that you should starve yourself to death, but that you should not give rein to a voracious appetite
(beyond what is necessary for life). I know quite well that in this matter there are faults on both sides. On the one hand there is the man who is wolf-like in his voracity: and on the other hand the man who makes himself useless for lack of sustenance. (36)
I can think of nothing more foolish than to seek fame by way of expensive apparel. If we are to judge only according to outward appearance, we shall have to ascribe glory and honour to the papal mules, which are so strong that they can carry more gold and silver and precious stones than any Milo.
44 (37) But who will not be ashamed of such costly attire when he 40 B, stechtag.
41 B, lammy; C, gicht.
42 B, malatzy; C, aussatz.
43 A, parabilis; B, nochgiiltig; C, gemain.
44 B omits the reference to Milo.
ii?
ZWINGLI hears of the Son of God and of the Virgin crying in the manger, with no more clothes in which to be swaddled than those which the Virgin Mary had taken with her (not yet expecting his birth).
Those who make daily display of new clothes give sure evidence of an inconstant, or (if that is too strong) an effeminate or childish 45 turn of mind. They are not Christians. For while they array themselves after this fashion they allow the destitute to perish with cold and hunger. So then the Christian must guard against excessive and wanton apparel as against any other form of evil.(38) It is when the young man begins to fall in love that he must show true nobility of spirit. And as in war others exercise their arms with weapons and feats of strength, so the young man must now apply all his forces in defence against senseless passion. That he should fall in love is inevitable. But let him be careful not to give way to despairing passion, but to single out as the object of his affection someone whose ways he can always bear with in lawful wedlock.4® Let him approach that one, but let his union with her be so pure and undefiled that apart from her he knows no other.
What need is there to forbid the Christian youth all desire for fame or wealth when such evils are castigated even by pagan writers?(39) He is no Christian who gives way to covetous ambition, the ambition which not only engulfs ones and twos and threes but overthrows flourishing kingdoms, devastates powerful cities and attacks and overturns the very foundations of government. Once this evil takes hold of the spirit, right conduct becomes impossible. Ambition is a deadly poison.
And today it has gained the mastery and is rampant everywhere.'7 (40) Only through Christ can we destroy this evil, by seeking diligently to follow him: for what was Christ's work except to destroy this evil?
I advise the young man not to despise mathematics 48 (with which we may also reckon music),(41) but he ought not to devote too much time to this subject. It is useful to those who know it and an obstacle to those who do not. But it does not yield any great profit to those who grow old in its service, and they are reduced to wandering from place to place in order not to perish for lack of activity.
45 A, tenerae; B, kindlich; C, waychen gemiits.
46 Following the expanded version in B.
47 Following B.
48 A, mathematicae disciplina; B, die zal.
OF THE EDUCATION
OF YOUTH
I do not blame anyone for learning the art of war,49 but I should judge differently if I did not see other kingdoms fleeing the pursuits which are beneficial to the life of the community.
A Christian should avoid the weapons of war as far as the security and peace of the state allow.
For God made David to triumph when he was unskilled in arms and went against Goliath with a sling.5° And he protected the unarmed Israelites against the invading enemy. Undoubtedly, then, he will help and protect us—or if he sees fit he will put weapons in our hands. For "he teaches our hands to fight.'? But if the young man does undergo military training, he must see to it that his only purpose is to protect his own country and those whom God approves. (42) It is my wish that all men (and especially those who are commanded to preach the Word of God) should make it their aim to be able to emulate the ancient city of Marseilles,5! (43) which numbered amongst its citizens only those who were masters of a trade and could support themselves. If that were so with us, then idleness, which is the root and seed of all forms of wantonness, would be excluded, and our bodies would be healthier and stronger and would live longer.
Part III The noble spirit must first consider the fact that Christ gave himself up to death on our behalf and became ours: therefore we ought to give up ourselves for the good of all men, not thinking that we are our own, but that we belong to others.
For we are not born to live to ourselves, but to become all things to all men.
From early boyhood, then, the young man ought to exercise himself only in righteousness, fidelity and constancy:*? for with virtues such as these he may serve the Christian community, 53 the common good, the state and individuals. Only the weak are concerned to find a quiet life: the most like to God are those who study to be of profit to all even to their own hurt.
In this connection, however, we must be careful to see that the things undertaken for God's honour or the state or the common good are not corrupted by the devil or by self-pleasing,
49 A, palaestram; B, fachten; C, ringen und fechten.
50 Following B, which adds mit der schlingen.
51 A, Massilia.
52 B increases the list of virtues.
53 A, ret publicae Christianae; B, gemeiner Christenheyt.
Z.B.—8
ZWINGLI so that in the long run we turn to our own interest that which we want to be regarded as undertaken in the interests of others.
For many begin well at the first, but they are quickly perverted and turned aside from all that is good by that vainglory which is the bane of all good counsels.
As regards the good or evil fortunes of others, a Christian spirit will conduct itself as if they were his own. When fortune comes to another he will think of it as coming to himself, and similarly with adversity. For he will look upon the whole fellowship 54 only as one household or family, indeed as one body, in which all the members rejoice and suffer together and help one another, so that whatever happens to one happens to all.
So then he will "rejoice with them that do rejoice and weep with them that weep," looking upon the fortunes of others as his own; for as Seneca says, What happens to one can happen to everyone.(44) Yet the Christian ought not to show joy or grief after the common manner, being carried away by good fortune and plunged into despair by evil. On the contrary, seeing we must always be affected either by the one emotion or the other, we ought so to moderate them (if we are wise) that we never trespass the bounds of due decorum. And that is how we are to rejoice at the prosperity of others as at our own, and that is how we are also to weep, bearing all things with moderation and self-control.
I do not believe that a young man should be debarred from seemly pleasures, for instance at those times when the sexes are accustomed to come together publicly,55 the marriage of relatives, annual games, carnivals and festivals: (45) for I note that Christ himself did not despise the wedding feast.
Seeing such things are necessary, I am better pleased if they are done publicly and not in corners or secretly, for the multitude of witnesses is more frightening to some than their own conscience, and if there are any who are shameless enough to conduct themselves indecorously in public, no good can be expected of them.
5° When communal gatherings of this kind do take place, the young man ought always to study to profit by them, so that he will not return home any the worse (which was the com54 A, rem publicam; B, gmeind.
55 Following the expanded version in B.
56 This sentence is paraphrased and expanded in B.
OF THE EDUCATION
OF YOUTH It5 plaint of Socrates). To that end he should mark those who are behaving honourably and decorously, that he may be able to follow them, and also those who are behaving scandalously and dishonourably, that he may avoid them.
But these things are not suitable for adults. For that reason it is my advice that the young ought to be allowed to attend such gatherings as infrequently as possible. Inevitably there is an almost frantic enthusiasm for associating with others in this way, but recovery from this enthusiasm should be swift. To help toward recovery, reasons can be offered which will satisfy those who realize that we are intent always upon better things.
When a neighbour is in trouble, we ought not to allow anything to hinder us from going. We should be the first there and the last away, and we must exert ourselves to weigh the hurt, treating it and removing it and proffering counsel.
Next to immortal God our parents ought to be held in highest esteem, as is customary even amongst pagans and unbelievers.(46) To our parents we ought always to yield.(47)
And though at times they may not act according to the mind of Christ (which is our mind), we must not oppose them violently, but tell them as gently as possible what they ought to say and do.(48) And if they will not listen, it is better to leave them than to insult or reproach them.
Anger (as the natural scientists tell us) is a product of heat; and as youth is the time of heat, the young man ought to keep a careful watch against anger, that his words and actions may not be impelled by it. Since anger continues with us, we ought to mistrust anything that might give rise to it.
If an insult is offered which we cannot swallow because it is too bitter, 57 it is better to bring the matter before a magistrate or to take it to court. For if we give back word for word or reproach those who reproach us, we only make ourselves like those whom we reproach.
At the proper time there is no reason why you should not play games with your equals, but they ought to be useful either educationally or as bodily exercise. Games with educational value are those which involve numbers (from which we learn arithmetic), or strategy, as for example chess, which teaches how to advance and retreat, and how to keep careful watch behind and before; for the main lesson we learn from this game is not to assume anything rashly.(49) But even in this moderation is to be observed, for there are some who push aside the 57 A, prae amaritudine; B, dass es ja uns zit bitter dunckt,
ZWINGLI serious affairs of life and give themselves to this one thing alone.
For my part, I would allow such recreations only occasionally and as a pastime. Dicing and card-games I condemn absolutely. 58
The games which exercise the body are running, jumping, throwing, fighting and wrestling, but the latter only in moderation, for it often takes on a serious character.59 Such sports are common to almost all peoples, but especially amongst the Swiss, who find them useful in many different circumstances.(50) I do not find the same value in swimming, though at the proper time it is pleasurable to stretch one's limbs in water and imitate the fish. And on occasion swimming has also proved useful, as with the man who swam from the Capitol and told Camillus of the pitiable state to which the city had been reduced by covetousness.(51) Chloelia too escaped to her own people by swimming. (52) Our conversation and speech should all be of a kind to profit those with whom we live. If we have to reprove or punish, we ought to do it wisely and wittily, and so good humouredly and considerately that we not only drive away the offence but win over the offender, binding him more closely to us.
We ought to follow after truth with such consistency and single-heartedness that we weigh not only our own speech but that of others, lest it contain any deceit or falsehood. A man of noble spirit is never more perturbed than when he involuntarily lets slip an untruth—not to mention his shame and horror when he lets out a flood of idle and empty gossip invented by himself or repeated from others. The Christian is commanded to speak truth with his neighbour. Christ himself is the truth. Therefore the Christian must cleave steadfastly to the truth. "'A double-minded man is unstable in all his ways."
A man who is inconsistent in his speech cannot be trusted. The heart declares itself in speech. If the speech be empty and untruthful and inconsistent, it is a sure sign that things are far worse inwardly. At the same time, lies cannot be concealed indefinitely, although they may be for a long time. For that reason it is foolish to cherish or mitigate a secret evil by hoping that it will remain secret.®!
But we must study to be truthful not only in our words but 38 Lit. to the gallows; B, an ryffen hinuss; C, verwirf ich gar.
$9 In B this clause follows the next sentence.
60 A, Helvetios; B, Eydgnossen.
61 Following the paraphrase in B.
OF THE EDUCATION
OF YOUTH 11/7 in all our actions. We must never do anything which is manifestly false.62 The face and hands and all the external features must not pretend to be other than the heart, which is the source of all our actions. If someone enters in a way quite different from that which his nature demands, his affected walk is quite enough to show us what manner of man he is, frivolous, and of a dissolute spirit.
But what need I say more? The young man ought to fix his whole attention upon the fullest possible absorbing of Christ himself. Where that is done, he will be a rule to himself. 3
And acting rightly, he will never be lifted up or cast down.He will increase daily, but he will see to it that he himself decreases.
He will progress, but he will always reckon himself the least of all. He will do good to others, but he will never hold it against them, for that was the way of Christ. And to be perfect, we must set ourselves to follow Christ alone.
These then, my dear Gerold,*4 are what appear to me to be the essentials in the instruction of a young nobleman. I need not draw attention to the disjointedness of their presentation, for that is easily perceived.(53) It is for you to ponder them in your mind and then to express in your conduct that which I have roughly sketched out on paper. In so doing, you will give order to that which is scattered and disorderly, and you will be a living example of the rule®S which I have written out for you. Indeed, if you apply yourself to them, may it not be that you will attain a greater completeness and perfection than I have been able to show in words. But you will have to stretch every nerve, which will have the useful result of banishing indolence, the mother of all mischief, to which so many are of evil custom shamefully addicted, as though their only ambition were to live upon others and to fulfil all manner of wickedness.
But turn your own youth to good account, as the poet said, (54) for the time passes quickly and the latter days are seldom better than the former. °° The true Christian is not the one who merely speaks about the laws of God,*' but the one who with God's help attempts great things. And for that reason, noble youth, see to it that 62 A, ficte; B, vdlschlich.
63 A, ipse sibi regula erit; B paraphrases: wirt inn Christus wol wysen zu laben, zu reden, zu handeln.
64 A, elegantissime Gerolde.
65 A, formulae; B, des leysts; C, dieses musters.
66 B paraphrases.
67 A, dogmatis; B, von gott; C, von den gesetzen.
ZWINGLI you adorn more illustriously and with true adornment the fair gifts of race, physique and patrimony with which you have been endowed. I say less than I ought? (55) Rank, beauty and wealth are not genuine riches, for they are subject to chance.
The only true adornments are virtue and honour. May God so lead you through the things of this world that you may never be separated from him.*8 Amen.
68 Following the expanded version in B.