HEBREWS

NEW

TESTAMENT

COMMENTARY

Exposition of Hebrews

William Hendriksen

and

Simon J. Kistemaker

BAKERBOOKS

A DIVISION OF BAKER BOOK HOUSE CO GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN 49516

Originally published in separate volumes:

Published by Baker Books

a division of Baker Book House Company

P.O Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516–6287

12 volume set, first available 2002

ISBN 0–8010-2606–7

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—for example, electronic, photocopy, recording—without the prior written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews.

ISBN 0–8010-2079–4

Unless otherwise noted, all Scripture references in

Hebrews

are taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®.

NIV

ABBREVIATIONS

asv American Standard Version

ATR Anglican Theological Review

BA Biblical Archaeologist

Bauer Walter Bauer, W. F. Arndt, F. W. Gingrich, and Frederick Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 2d ed.

BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

BF British and Foreign Bible Society, The New Testament, 2d ed.

Bib Biblica

BibLeb Bibel und Leben

Bov Jose M. Bover, Novi Testamenti Biblica Graeca et Latina, 4th ed.

BS Bibliotheca Sacra

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CTJ Calvin Theological Journal

I Clem. First Epistle of Clement

Dial. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho

Epid. Irenaeus, Epideixis

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

ExpT Expository Times

gnb Good News Bible

Heresies Irenaeus, Against Heresies

HTR Harvard Theological Review

Interp Interpretation

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

jb Jerusalem Bible

JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JTS Journal of Theological Studies

kjv King James Version

lb The Living Bible

LCL Loeb Classical Library edition

LXX Septuagint

Merk Augustinus Merk, ed., Novum Testamentum Graece et Latine, 9th ed.

mlb The Modern Language Bible

Moffatt The Bible: A New Translation by James Moffatt

nab New American Bible

nasb New American Standard Bible

neb New English Bible

Nes-Al Eberhard Nestle; Kurt Aland, rev., Novum Testamentum Graece, 26th ed.

NIDNTT New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology

niv New International Version

nkjv New King James Version

NovT Novum Testamentum

NTS New Testament Studies

Phillips The New Testament in Modern English

4Q Florilegium Collection of biblical texts from Qumran Cave 4

1QSa Rule of the Congregation (serekh hayaḥad) from Qumran Cave 1

RefR Reformed Review

rsv Revised Standard Version

rv Revised Version

ScotJT Scottish Journal of Theology

SB H. L. Strack and P. Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch

StTh Studia Theologica

Talmud The Babylonian Talmud

TB Tyndale Bulletin

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament

TR Textus Receptus: The Greek New Testament According to the Majority Text

Tyn H Bul Tyndale House Bulletin

TS Theological Studies

TZ Theologische Zeitschrift

WH B. F. Westcott and Fenton Hort, The New Testament in the Original Greek

WTJ Westminster Theological Journal

ZNW Zeitschrift für die Neuentestamentliche Wissenschaft

ZPEB Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible

ZTK

Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche

PREFACE

When Dr. William Hendriksen died in January 1982, he had completed commentaries in the New Testament Commentary series on the four Gospels and on all of Paul’s epistles with the exception of I and II Corinthians. He set the goal of writing as many commentaries as he was able.

I have been given the challenge to continue this task. Although my style may differ somewhat from that of Dr. Hendriksen, the format, design, and purpose are those of my predecessor. My commentary on Hebrews has been written for the benefit of the pastor and the lay person.

The commentary on the text itself is free from technical terms and phrases, so that the lay person can read the explanation of a text without difficulty. For the student who knows Greek, I have placed the explanation of Greek words, phrases, and constructions at the conclusion of each section of the text.

Introductory statements, comments about doctrinal considerations, and a summary are part of every chapter. And throughout the commentary the reader finds numerous practical helps and applications. Last, a Scripture index in the concluding pages proves to be of great value for quick reference and consultation.

Spring 1984

Simon J. Kistemaker

Introduction

Outline

A. What Are the Characteristics of Hebrews?

B. Who Wrote This Epistle?

C. What Is the Message of Hebrews?

D. Why Was This Letter Rejected in the Early Centuries?

E. When Was Hebrews Written?

F. Who Were the First Readers?

G. How Can Hebrews Be Outlined?

If there is one book of the New Testament that exhorts the Christian to remain faithful “in the last days,” it is the Epistle to the Hebrews. This epistle has a special message for a day marked by apostasy; it addresses the believer who, facing unbelief and disobedience, must stand firm in the faith. The letter to the Hebrews, then, is an exhortation to faithfulness. Granted that Hebrews teaches the superiority of Christ over angels, Moses, Joshua, Aaron, and Melchizedek, the exhortations that are freely interspersed among the doctrinal sections set the tone. The admonitions reveal the warm heart and deep concern of the pastor-writer.

Constantly in the epistle the author pleads with the reader to remain faithful to the gospel and not to drift away (2:1; 3:12; 4:11; 6:11–12; 10:22–25; 12:25). He stresses corporate responsibility: fellow believers are exhorted to take care that not one believer is allowed to turn away from the living God (3:12–13; 4:1, 11). The consequences of falling away are indeed unimaginable, for, says the writer, “It is a dreadful thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (10:31).

The writer of Hebrews counsels the believer to listen obediently to the Word of God (4:2–3, 6, 12). He exhorts the believers to “worship God acceptably with reverence and awe” (12:28). And he concludes that “our God is a consuming fire” (12:29)—in case this exhortation is disregarded.

In an age in which apostasy is commonplace and “the secret power of lawlessness is already at work,” as Paul puts it in II Thessalonians 2:7, the message of Hebrews is most relevant. We simply cannot ignore the warning that accompanies “such a great salvation” (2:3), because we are unable to escape if we do. Therefore, we do well to listen attentively.

A. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HEBREWS?

Many translations of the Bible call Hebrews “the Epistle to the Hebrews.” But is this New Testament book really an epistle? If we compare it with the epistles of Paul, James, Peter, Jude, and John, we must say that it is not. Greetings customary in these letters—with the exception of I John—are absent in Hebrews.

1. Letter or Epistle?

In the letter itself, however, the writer includes a few references to the conduct and possessions of the readers (6:10; 10:32–34). And in chapter 13 he becomes rather intimate with the recipients. He calls Timothy “our brother” and mentions that Timothy, having been released from prison, will accompany him to visit the readers (13:23). The letter ends with greetings (13:24), and therefore in view of this last chapter Hebrews is indeed a letter.

The beginning of Hebrews has something in common with the First Epistle of John. Both have an introduction that in many respects serves as a summary statement for the succeeding chapters. The name of the author is absent in Hebrews and in I John. Also, specific mention of the addressees, greetings, and prayers are missing. These elements are characteristic of the rest of the New Testament epistles.

To say that Hebrews is a treatise in order to avoid the use of the words epistle or letter is not too satisfactory. A treatise consists of an exposition of or discourse on one topic, but Hebrews teaches a number of doctrines and intersperses them with pastoral exhortations. We admit that whatever word is used to describe this book of the New Testament, difficulties remain. One solution to the problem is to call the book Hebrews, as some of the more recent translations do. Yet Hebrews itself is one of the general Epistles of the New Testament.

As an epistle Hebrews is similar to some of the writings of Paul; it contains doctrine and exhortation. Paul’s custom, however, is to set forth doctrine first; toward the end of his epistles, Paul gives his exhortations. Hebrews differs in this respect. The writer mingles doctrine and pastoral admonition; for example, in the midst of his teaching on the Son’s superiority to the angels, the author exhorts the reader to “pay more careful attention” to the Word of God (2:1–4).

2. Pastoral or Doctrinal?

Is Hebrews a pastoral or doctrinal epistle? We can easily answer, “It is both.” Yet we admit that on balance the purpose of the writer of Hebrews is to convey a pastoral exhortation to the recipients. He strengthens his admonitions with doctrines about Christ’s superiority, the priesthood, the covenant, and faith.

Nowhere in the entire New Testament except in the letter to the Hebrews are the doctrines of Christ’s priesthood and the covenant explained. We find but a passing reference to the priesthood of Christ in Romans 8:34, “Christ Jesus, who died—more than that, who was raised to life—is at the right hand of God and is also interceding for us.” Paul merely mentions the intercessory work of Christ and thus implies Christ’s priesthood. But in all his epistles Paul refrains from writing about this doctrine. Although Paul’s theological training included the doctrine of the covenant as an integral part of Old Testament teaching, he mentions the word covenant nine times (Rom. 9:4; 11:27; I Cor. 11:25; II Cor. 3:6, 14; Gal. 3:15, 17; 4:24; Eph. 2:12). In Galatians 4:24 he is somewhat specific: “These things may be taken figuratively, for the women represent two covenants. One covenant is from Mount Sinai and bears children who are to be slaves: This is Hagar.” Yet even in this setting, Paul’s treatment is rather scant. The writer of Hebrews, on the other hand, teaches the doctrines of the priesthood and the covenant in full.

3. Revelation and Inspiration

The author gives the reader God’s revelation. For him the primary author of Scripture, namely, the Holy Spirit, is all important, for God addresses the reader through his Word. Thus, not the secondary author but God is the speaker in the introductory phrases to the numerous quotations from the Old Testament. In chapter 1, God is the One who utters the citations from the Psalms, the Song of Moses (Deut. 32:43, LXX), and II Samuel 7:14. With variations the phrase God says occurs constantly (1:5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13; 2:12, 13; 3:7; 4:3; 5:5, 6; 7:21; 8:8; 10:5, 15, 17; 13:5). And because the secondary author is unimportant for the writer of Hebrews, his own name also has been deleted, perhaps purposely, in this letter. By focusing attention on the Triune God as speaker, the author teaches that Scripture is divinely inspired. He has heard not the voice of man but the voice of God.

Interestingly, however, when the author quotes from the Old Testament he uses the Greek translation (the Septuagint) of the Hebrew text. And this translation in places differs from the original. Here are two examples. First, Psalm 8:5 has: “You made him a little lower than the heavenly beings [or: than God],” and Hebrews 2:7 reads: “You made him a little [or: for a little while] lower than the angels.” Second, the wording of Psalm 40:6 is: “Sacrifice and offering you did not desire, but my ears you have pierced.” However, Hebrews 10:5 gives this reading: “Sacrifice and offering you did not desire, but a body you prepared for me.”

Why did the author use a translation that differed from the Old Testament text? Possibly the writer did not know Hebrew, had learned the Scriptures through a Greek translation, and wrote to readers who themselves used this translation. Does this mean that the so-called Septuagint translation was inspired? Of course not. The Hebrew text of the Old Testament, not the translation, was inspired by God. But this does not mean that the writer of Hebrews was forbidden to quote from a translation, even from one that showed some variation. However, at the moment the author wrote his letter, the inspiration of the epistle, including the Old Testament quotations, took place. Guided by the Holy Spirit, the writer was free to take his material from a translation that differed from the Hebrew text; he did not have to correct the translation to make it conform to the reading of the Hebrew original. He wrote to Hebrews who were familiar with the Septuagint; that, for them, was the Bible.

4. The Old Testament

We who are accustomed to owning personal copies of the Bible should not think that this was true for the readers of Hebrews in the second half of the first century. Copies of the Old Testament books were kept in the local synagogue and church. These were used during the worship services for the instruction of the people. But the people attending the worship services did not possess these books. They treasured the Word in their hearts and minds by committing the psalms and hymns to memory. Also they learned messianic passages of the Old Testament by heart. They sang the well-known psalms and hymns in church or at home, and they recited particular verses from the Old Testament.

The author of Hebrews chose his citations carefully. For instance, in chapter 1, five quotations are from familiar psalms, one from the Song of Moses, and one from a messianic passage. The author appeals to the memory of his readers and thus communicates the Word clearly and effectively.

5. Style

A final characteristic of Hebrews is the choice of words, the balanced sentences, the rhetorical rhythm in the original Greek, and the excellent style. Even in translation the reader today perceives something of the magnificence of the author’s literary ability. Take, for example, the author’s pithy definition of faith: “Now faith is being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Or analyze this sentence for balance: “If we deliberately keep on sinning after we have received the knowledge of the truth, no sacrifice for sins is left, but only a fearful expectation of judgment and of raging fire that will consume the enemies of God” (10:26–27). The author reveals himself as an educated person who chose his words carefully and who was thoroughly familiar with the teaching of the Old Testament.

B. WHO WROTE THIS EPISTLE?

When questioned about the authorship of Hebrews, the third-century theologian Origen said, “But who wrote the epistle, to be sure, only God knows.” And that was in a.d. 225. If scholars at the dawn of the Christian era did not know who wrote Hebrews, we certainly will not rise above them.

1. Apollos

Of course, scholars have suggested possible candidates, but they must resort to hypotheses. Martin Luther, for example, thought that Apollos was the author of Hebrews. He based his hypothesis on Acts 18:24–26, “Meanwhile a Jew named Apollos, a native of Alexandria, came to Ephesus. He was a learned man, with a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures. He had been instructed in the way of the Lord, and he spoke with great fervor and taught about Jesus accurately, though he knew only the baptism of John. He began to speak boldly in the synagogue. When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they invited him to their home and explained to him the way of God more adequately.”

Luther pointed out that Alexandria was a great educational center, where Apollos learned to express himself masterfully in the Greek language. Apollos used the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament because the Septuagint was first published in Alexandria.

Apollos had become acquainted with the Christian faith, had heard Paul preach in Ephesus, and had been instructed “in the way of God more adequately” by Priscilla and Aquila. He possessed a “thorough knowledge of the Scriptures,” “taught about Jesus accurately,” and became an outstanding speaker. For Martin Luther, Apollos was most qualified to write the Epistle to the Hebrews.

The hypothesis is attractive indeed and answers many questions. However, the silence of the centuries is telling. We would expect that Clement of Alexandria, about a.d. 200, says something about this matter, but he omits the name Apollos. Instead Clement ascribes Hebrews to Paul.

2. Paul

Was Paul the author of Hebrews? For centuries numerous people have accepted the Pauline authorship of this epistle. From the first publication of the King James Version in 1611 to the present, many people have taken the title verbatim: “The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Hebrews.” But in the margin of some Bibles of this version the reader is told: “Authorship uncertain, commonly attributed to Paul.”

The uncertainty of Pauline authorship stems from the difference between the epistles of Paul and Hebrews. To begin with the language of Hebrews, we see a distinct difference. Nothing in Hebrews reminds us of the style, diction, word choice, and material of Paul’s letters. The language in Hebrews simply is not that of Paul.

The doctrines expressed in Hebrews find no echo in any of Paul’s epistles. Usually in these letters cross-references to major doctrines are evident. Not so in Hebrews. The doctrines of Christ’s priesthood and the covenant are prominent in Hebrews, but absent from the letters of Paul.

The use of names referring to Jesus in Hebrews differs from that of Paul. In his earlier epistles Paul refers to the Lord as Jesus Christ, but in his later epistles this combination is reversed: Paul calls him Christ Jesus. He seldom writes Jesus (II Cor. 11:4; Phil. 2:10; I Thess. 4:14). The author of Hebrews, by contrast, repeatedly calls the Lord by his given name Jesus (2:9; 3:1; 4:14; 6:20; 7:22; 10:19; 12:2, 24; 13:15). Three times the author of Hebrews uses the combination Jesus Christ (10:10; 13:8, 21), and only once he says Lord Jesus (13:20). The Epistle to the Hebrews, however, lacks the combination Christ Jesus.

The most significant point in considering whether Paul wrote the Epistle to the Hebrews has to do with Hebrews 2:3. The writer, who includes himself in his warning to pay attention to the Word of God, says, “This salvation, which was first announced by the Lord, was confirmed to us by those who heard him.” In schematic form, we have the following sequence:

This salvation which

1. was first announced by the Lord

2. by those who heard him

3. was confirmed to us

The conclusion may be drawn that the writer had not heard the Lord personally but had to rely on the reports of others. Paul, of course, states categorically that he did not receive the gospel from anyone but Jesus Christ (Gal. 1:12). Paul heard the voice of Jesus on the Damascus road (Acts 9:4; 22:7; 26:14). And Jesus spoke to him afterward (Acts 18:9–10; 22:18–21). Paul, therefore, could not have written the words of Hebrews 2:3.

3. Barnabas

Tertullian, around a.d. 225, suggested that Barnabas was the writer of Hebrews. He did this in light of Barnabas’s credentials given in Acts 4:36–37: “Joseph, a Levite from Cyprus, whom the apostles called Barnabas (which means Son of Encouragement), sold a field he owned and brought the money and put it at the apostles’ feet.” As a Levite, Barnabas was fully acquainted with the Levitical priesthood. Besides, he came from the island of Cyprus where he presumably learned the Greek language well. He was familiar with the church and its needs. Thus, he was eminently qualified to write the Epistle to the Hebrews, according to Tertullian. The weakness of this position is that it has not found any support in the history of the canon. Tertullian has not gained any followers and his suggestion has been viewed as a curiosity.

4. Priscilla

Last among the names that have been proposed for solving the question of authorship is the name of Priscilla. She with her husband Aquila instructed Apollos (Acts 18:26). But Priscilla could not have written Hebrews because in the original Greek of Hebrews 11:32, the writer uses a participle with a masculine ending when he refers to himself: “I do not have time to tell about Gideon.…”

What is the conclusion of the matter? We simply say with Origen, “But who wrote the epistle, to be sure, only God knows.” In the final analysis, authorship is not important. The content of the epistle is what matters.

C. WHAT IS THE MESSAGE OF HEBREWS?

A cursory glance at the Epistle to the Hebrews tells the readers that its content is strengthened by numerous quotations from the Old Testament; next, the author constantly exhorts the readers pastorally; and last, the development of the doctrinal part follows a logical sequence. We begin our survey of the content with a discussion of the Old Testament citations in Hebrews.

1. Old Testament Quotations

Estimates of the number of direct quotations in the Epistle to the Hebrews vary. For example, some scholars count all the direct citations and come to a total of thirty-six.¹ Others find twenty-four direct quotations from the Old Testament and add another five passages “which are used verbally though not formally quoted.” They recognize twenty-nine citations.²

Although we realize that the author of Hebrews did not have to provide introductory statements for each Old Testament quote, we still think that a direct citation is one with an introductory formula. We find twenty-six quotations, to which we add five that lack an introduction. This brings the total to thirty-one passages.

The Psalter was a favorite book for the writer of Hebrews. One-third of his direct quotations have been taken from the Book of Psalms. Most of them are located in Hebrews 1. One citation comes from the Hymn of Moses, Deuteronomy 32, in the Septuagint version.

Direct Quotations

	*Old Testament*	*Hebrews*
1.	Psalm 2:7	1:5a; 5:5
2.	II Samuel 7:14	1:5b
3.	Deuteronomy 32:43	1:6b
4.	Psalm 104:4	1:7
5.	Psalm 45:6–7	1:8–9
6.	Psalm 102:25–27	1:10–12
7.	Psalm 110:1	1:13
8.	Psalm 8:4–6	2:6–8a
9.	Psalm 22:22	2:12
10.	Isaiah 8:17	2:13a
11.	Isaiah 8:18	2:13b
12.	Numbers 12:7	3:2, 5
13.	Psalm 95:7–11	3:7–11
14.	Genesis 2:2	4:4
15.	Psalm 110:4	5:6; 7:17, 21
16.	Genesis 22:17	6:14
17.	Genesis 14:17–20	7:1–2
18.	Exodus 25:40	8:5
19.	Jeremiah 31:31–34	8:8–12
20.	Exodus 24:8	9:20
21.	Psalm 40:6–8	10:5–7
22.	Deuteronomy 32:35a	10:30a
23.	Deuteronomy 32:36a; Psalm 135:14a	10:30b
24.	Isaiah 26:20; Habakkuk 2:3–4	10:37–38
25.	Genesis 21:12	11:18
26.	Proverbs 3:11–12	12:5–6
27.	Exodus 19:12–13	12:20
28.	Deuteronomy 9:19	12:21
29.	Haggai 2:6	12:26
30.	Deuteronomy 31:6	13:5
31.	Psalm 118:6	13:6

The writer of Hebrews appeals to his readers by quoting familiar passages from the Old Testament. These passages presumably had been memorized by the readers, so that when they heard the Epistle to the Hebrews read to them in a worship service, they could relate to its content. The Old Testament Scriptures, therefore, were of great importance to the author and the readers of this epistle. In the words of the writer, “the word of God is living and active. Sharper than any double-edged sword” (4:12). And that Word has been quoted, alluded to, and used in Hebrews more than in any other New Testament book.

2. Pastoral Admonitions

Repeatedly the author admonishes his readers to “pay more careful attention” to the Word of God (2:1). He calls that word preached to the Israelites in the desert “the gospel” (4:2), and he states that these rebellious people died in the desert because they failed to combine the Word they had heard with faith.

Is the epistle predominantly pastoral? Or is it doctrinal? Differently stated, the question is whether the author’s admonitions result in theological teaching or, vice versa, whether doctrines lead to admonitions.³ If we look at the numerous passages that exhort the readers, we see a remarkable consistency in approach. The author writes pastorally and encourages the Hebrews to remain faithful to God and his Word. “See to it, brothers, that none of you has a sinful, unbelieving heart that turns away from the living God” (3:12). This admonition is the key to understanding the pastoral concerns of the writer. It is basic to the warnings that precede and follow. In sequence, here are a number of admonitions that make up the content of the Epistle to the Hebrews:

2:1–4	“We must pay more careful attention, therefore”
3:1	“Therefore, holy brothers, … fix your thoughts on Jesus”
3:12–19	“See to it, brothers”
4:1–3	“Therefore, … let us be careful”
4:11	“Let us, therefore, make every effort”
4:14–16	“Therefore, … let us hold firmly to the faith”
6:1–3	“Therefore let us leave the elementary teachings”
6:11–12	“We want each of you to show this same diligence”
10:19–39	“Therefore, brothers, … let us draw near to God”
12:1–28	“Therefore, … let us throw off everything that hinders”
13:1–25	“Keep on loving each other as brothers”

The appeal of the writer comes to the readers in phraseology that borders on repetition. The message is clear: keep the faith, be obedient, remain strong, come to God, and claim your salvation. The author warns the reader against the sin of unbelief that eventually takes its toll and ends in apostasy.

As the writer exhorts so he teaches. He expresses his concern that the readers obey the Word of God, and thus he exhorts them. He also wants his readers to know the Word, and thus he teaches them.

3. Doctrinal Sequence

In the opening verses of his introduction (1:1–2), the author defines the extent and the range of the Word of God: in the Old Testament era God spoke through his prophets; in New Testament times, he has spoken through his Son. He expected his people to obey his Word when it was communicated to them “by angels” (2:2), for disobedience resulted in “just punishment.” How much more, then, are the people of the New Testament era to obey God’s Word that was proclaimed not by angels but by the Son of God. And this Son is far superior to the angels because he is the Prophet who spoke the Word (1:2), the Priest who “provided purification for sins” (1:3), and the King who “sat down at the right hand of the Majesty in heaven” (1:3). Furthermore, this Prophet, who is Priest and King as well, demands strict obedience to the Word that proclaims salvation (2:3).

The superiority of the Son of God in relation to the angels is confessed in psalm and song. The psalm and hymn writers portray the Son as King, God, Creator, and one whose “years will never end” (1:12). In distinction from the angels, the Son took upon himself man’s human nature (2:14) and is not ashamed to call his people brothers and sisters, for he and they “are of the same family” (2:11–12). Because of this close identity with his brothers and sisters, Jesus became their “merciful and faithful high priest in service to God,” and thus he made “atonement for the sins of the people” (2:17). For this reason, says the writer of Hebrews, I exhort you to “fix your thoughts on Jesus, the apostle and high priest whom we confess” (3:1).

Jesus is greater than Moses. Moses was a faithful servant in God’s house; Jesus is a faithful son over God’s house (3:5–6). In the time of Moses the Israelites refused to obey God’s Word and consequently perished in the desert (3:17). The believer today is exhorted to listen to “the gospel” and to make every effort to enter the rest God has promised (4:3, 6, 11). Take the living and active Word of God to heart, counsels the author, because it may be compared with a double-edged sword (4:12).

Also, Jesus is far greater than Aaron. Aaron was a high priest, but a sinner; Jesus is the great high priest, yet without sin (5:3; 4:14–15). Jesus became high priest in the order of Melchizedek (5:10). The readers should have known this fact by searching the Scriptures. Therefore, the author of Hebrews reproves them for their indolence (5:11–13). He exhorts them to advance in the “teachings about Christ” (6:1); refusal to advance leads to spiritual death (6:4–6, 8). He encourages the believers with the reassuring word that God is true to his promise. That promise God confirms with an oath, so that his word is unchangeable (6:17–18).

The writer shows the readers from the Old Testament Scriptures that Jesus, belonging to the high-priestly order of Melchizedek, is superior to the Levitical priests (chap. 7). Priests in the Aaronic order were appointed by law, were sinners, and were subject to death (7:23, 27–28). When God swore an oath, Jesus became priest and thereby indicated the unchangeableness of his priestly office (7:21). He is sinless and is priest forever.

Jesus is priest-king, but he does not serve in an earthly tabernacle; he has gone to serve in “the true tabernacle set up by the Lord, not by man” (8:2; see also 9:11, 24). There in the Most Holy Place he obtained eternal redemption for his people, and there he serves as “the mediator of a new covenant” (9:15). Christ offered himself once for all and thereby “made perfect forever those who are being made holy” (10:14) and have the law of the new covenant in their hearts and written on their minds.

The second part of the epistle begins with 10:19 and is pastoral throughout. The writer encourages the readers “to draw near to God,” to meet together for worship, and to await the coming Day (10:22, 25). Once more he stresses that deliberate sin cannot be forgiven (6:4–6; 10:26–29). The result of willful sin is that one “fall[s] into the hands of the living God” (10:31).

Chapter 11 is a consideration of the heroes of faith depicted in the Old Testament. The author has been selective and devotes most of the discussion to Abraham the father of believers (11:8–19). He exhorts the readers to fix their attention on Jesus, the “author and perfecter” of their faith (12:2), to strengthen their “feeble arms and weak knees” (12:12), and “to live in peace with all men and to be holy” (12:14). Chapter 12 concludes with an exhortation to “worship God acceptably with reverence and awe” (12:28). The last chapter of Hebrews is a series of concluding exhortations with an eloquent benediction (13:20–21) and personal greetings (13:22–25).

D. WHY WAS THIS LETTER REJECTED IN THE EARLY CENTURIES?

1. First Century

The history of the Epistle to the Hebrews in the Christian church of the first few centuries is rather varied. The letter was accepted in the West and quoted by Clement of Rome in his epistle, known as I Clement, to the church of Corinth. First Clement was written about a.d. 96 and contains segments from Hebrews (see especially I Clem. 36:1–5; 17:1, 5; 19:2; 27:2; 43:1; 56:2–4). Clement’s use of Hebrews in the last decade of the first century is sufficient evidence that the Epistle to the Hebrews circulated widely.

2. Second Century

Irenaeus, about a.d. 185, quotes from Hebrews. He was bishop of the churches of Vienne and Lyon in southern France. Tertullian, a North African writer who died in a.d. 225, quotes Hebrews 6:4–8. He introduces the lengthy quotation as follows:

For there is extant withal an Epistle to the Hebrews under the name of Barnabas—a man sufficiently accredited by God.… Warning, accordingly, the disciples to omit all first principles, and strive rather after perfection, and not lay again the foundations of repentance from the works of the dead.…⁴

The church of the West (Italy, France, and Africa), during the latter part of the second century, had reservations about the place of Hebrews in the canon of the New Testament. For example, the list of New Testament books known as the Muratorian Canon that presumably dates from a.d. 175 does not include the Epistle to the Hebrews.

The reason for these reservations can be traced to the doctrinal controversies of the second and third centuries. In a.d. 156, Montanus, a self-proclaimed theologian from Asia Minor, practiced asceticism and expected his followers to live a life of holiness. He applied Hebrews 6:4–6 to anyone who indulged in worldly matters and thus denied such a person the possibility of repentance. Then in a.d. 250 Emperor Decius instigated persecutions against the Christians, many of whom under duress denied the Christian faith. Novatian, a native of Phrygia in Asia Minor, used Hebrews 6:4–6 against all Christians who had fallen away because of these persecutions. Novatian was of the opinion that it was impossible for them to come to repentance; they were cut off from the church and denied readmission. The application of this Scripture passage in the rigorous manners of the Montanists and the Novatians did not meet with approval in the church. Because of these schismatic movements and their abuse of this particular passage, the Epistle to the Hebrews was not placed among the canonical books of the New Testament in the West.

3. Third Century

The church of the East (Egypt and Syria), however, applied the rule that for a New Testament book to be canonical it had to be apostolic. The Epistle to the Hebrews was thought to be written by Paul, who was an apostle, and therefore Hebrews was accepted as canonical. Already in a.d. 175 Pantaenus said that Paul omitted his name in the epistle for several reasons: his modesty, his respect for the Lord, and the superabundance of his writing.⁵ Although these reasons are unconvincing, they indicate that Pantaenus harbored a degree of uneasiness about Pauline authorship.

His successor Clement of Alexandria, in approximately a.d. 200, expresses the same uneasiness.

And as for the Epistle to the Hebrews, [Clement] says indeed that it is Paul’s, but that it was written for Hebrews in the Hebrew tongue, and that Luke, having carefully translated it, published it for the Greeks.… The [words] “Paul an apostle” were naturally not prefixed. For, says he, “in writing to Hebrews who had conceived a prejudice against him and were suspicious of him, he very wisely did not repel them at the beginning by putting his name.”⁶

An Alexandrian papyrus manuscript, listed as P⁴⁶ and dated approximately a.d. 200, places the Epistle to the Hebrews among those of Paul. In fact, Hebrews comes after Romans and before I Corinthians. And Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, writes in a.d. 367 about Hebrews and places it between II Thessalonians and I Timothy.

a.d.

E. WHEN WAS HEBREWS WRITTEN?

Because of I Clement, we can say that Hebrews was composed before a.d. 96. In that year Clement of Rome wrote his epistle to the Corinthian church and incorporated a number of quotations and allusions from Hebrews in his epistle. The outer limit of dating the Epistle to the Hebrews is sure: sometime before a.d. 96. To determine a starting point for the composition of the epistle is difficult.

1. Internal Evidence

In Hebrews 2:3, the author places himself among the readers as second-generation Christians. That is, he himself had not heard the gospel from the lips of Jesus but with the readers had to rely on the preaching of those who had heard Jesus. The author, then, was a follower of the apostles, many of whom could still be alive at the time the writer composed his epistle. Numerous passages in Hebrews reflect a time in which the Christians’ ardent love for Christ had waned and the enthusiasm of a former period had disappeared.

The readers of Hebrews were in danger of drifting away from the gospel they had heard (2:1). Some of them might run the risk of being hardened by the deceitfulness of sin (3:13). Some were in the habit of no longer attending the worship services (10:25). Others were faltering in their spiritual zeal (12:12).

The author rebukes the readers for having failed to learn the doctrines of Scripture. “In fact, though by this time you ought to be teachers, you need someone to teach you the elementary truths of God’s word all over again” (5:12). Also their leaders who had taught the Word of God had died (13:7).

In earlier days the readers had endured persecution after they “had received the light” (10:32). They had experienced suffering, insults, and confiscation of their property (10:33). The author fails to provide an indication when the persecution took place. Although we are inclined to think of the time following the burning of Rome in a.d. 64—after which the Neronian persecutions were instigated—the author says nothing more than “remember those earlier days.”

The frequent exhortations—to pay attention (2:1), to encourage one another (3:13), to persevere (10:36), to run with perseverance (12:1), and to resist sin (12:4)—leave the impression that the recipients of the epistle lived in a period of religious peace. They no longer seemed to suffer for being Christians, as they had on earlier occasions. And because of the peaceful times, religious backsliding had become a distinct threat to the people to whom Hebrews was addressed.

2. Historical Setting

If we look at the historical setting of the second half of the first century, we note that Nero acceded to the imperial throne in a.d. 54. A decade later the persecutions against the Christians began; they lasted until Nero committed suicide in a.d. 68. Within a year in short succession, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius ruled the Roman empire. But in a.d. 69 Vespasian, who at the time functioned as general of the Roman army that surrounded the city of Jerusalem, became emperor. He loved peace and stability; he was a virtuous man, upright in character.⁷ During his ten-year rule, peace returned to his worldwide domain, and consequently persecutions against the Christians belonged to history.

Vespasian’s son, Titus, who took his father’s place as general of the army in Judea, also followed in his footsteps as emperor in a.d. 79. His brief reign of two years was marked by the same desire for peace and tranquility. When Titus’ brother, Domitian, began to rule the empire in a.d. 81, the peaceful trend established by Vespasian and continued by Titus endured for the next decade. Toward the end of his reign, Domitian introduced persecutions that may have caused the exile of John to the isle of Patmos (Rev. 1:9).

History verifies that a decline of religious fervor occurs more often in a period of peace and prosperity than in times of persecution and hardship. I venture to say that the Epistle to the Hebrews reflects a period of sustained peace during which the Christians had relaxed spiritually. The writer of the epistle, then, felt obliged to write words of exhortation and occasional rebuke. His reference to the persecution the readers had endured in “those earlier days” may refer to that of Nero in the years a.d. 64–68. The epistle probably was written in the early 80s.

3. Religious Context

However, a much more weighty consideration relates to the author’s discussion of the high priesthood of Christ. When the writer is about to discuss the topic of Jesus as high priest in the order of Melchizedek, he says that this subject “is hard to explain because you are slow to learn” (5:11). The word hard had overtones that reverberated in the Hebrew community. For the Jew, the Aaronic priesthood was sacrosanct because God had ordained it by law (7:11–12). No Jew would dare suggest that the Levitical priesthood ought to be “set aside because it was weak and useless” (7:18) and assert that “the law made nothing perfect” (7:19). Should he say such a hard thing, he would bring the wrath and indignation of the Hebrew community on his head.

The fact that the author of the epistle boldly writes about the setting aside of the Levitical priesthood can best be understood when we place the time of composition a decade or more after the destruction of the temple and the cessation of the Aaronic priesthood. The writer, therefore, had the freedom to express himself on this matter without incurring the anger of the Jewish people. Perhaps this is one of the reasons that the other New Testament writers refrained from discussing the priesthood of Christ. For example, in spite of the vow of purification that Paul took to show the Jews in Jerusalem that he was living in obedience to the law (Acts 21:22–26), he was accused of teaching doctrines against the Jewish people, the law, and the temple (Acts 21:28). What Paul could not do regarding the priesthood, the writer of Hebrews was able to do in a time in which the priesthood and the law concerning it belonged to the past.

Nowhere in the Epistle to the Hebrews do we find any mention of the temple in Jerusalem. The writer discusses the tabernacle and priesthood of the forty-year period in the wilderness. Because he deletes any reference to the temple or the destruction of Jerusalem, he may imply that the priestly services had come to an end. And for that reason, he turns his attention to the initial stages of the Levitical priesthood and the construction of the tabernacle.

a.d.

F. WHO WERE THE FIRST READERS?

The recipients of the Epistle to the Hebrews were Jewish Christians. Where these Hebrews lived, the author fails to say. If he had only given some indication as to the epistle’s place of destination, we would not need to work with a hypothesis. Many place names have been suggested: Jerusalem, the Qumran settlement near the Dead Sea, Alexandria, Rome—to mention no more.

1. Israel

If we accept a date of composition after a.d. 70, automatically Jerusalem and the Qumran community are ruled out. After the Romans destroyed the city of Jerusalem, they eventually renamed it Aelia Capitolina and forbade the Jews from resettling there. Also, the Qumran community evacuated during the years of Roman occupation.

2. Alexandria

Scholars who favor Alexandria as the place where the Hebrews lived base their supposition on the fact that Alexandria for centuries had been the home of many Jewish people. Here the Septuagint originated to aid the Greek-speaking Jews in their Scripture reading. And according to Acts 18:24, Alexandria was the place from which Apollos came. But no writer of the first few centuries testifies to an Alexandrian destination or to a possible authorship of Apollos. We need to look elsewhere for a place of destination.

3. Rome

Many factors point to Rome. The final greeting of the epistle mentions Italy. “Those from Italy send you their greetings” (13:24). Granted that the preposition from can be interpreted to mean in—that is, “those who are in Italy send you their greetings”—the commonly understood meaning away from Italy seems to be preferred. Christians from Italy who were away from their homeland conveyed greetings to their loved ones in Italy, presumably Rome.

Did the writer of Hebrews address his letter to the same congregation that received Paul’s letter to the Romans? Not necessarily. Many congregations flourished in the imperial city in view of the early beginnings of the church in Rome. (For example, archaeologists have unearthed a funerary inscription in Rome that bears the name of a Christian lady, known as Pomponia Graecina, who was buried in a.d. 43.) We assume that in the course of time the church continued to increase in numbers. The author of Hebrews makes a distinction between “leaders” and “people” when he writes, “Greet all your leaders and all God’s people” (13:24). He seems to leave the impression that he addresses his epistle to a particular congregation in Rome.

Next, Clement of Rome quoted from the epistle soon after it was written. Although the letter could have been composed elsewhere and in time brought to Rome, a letter addressed to the Hebrews in Rome would circulate among the congregations in that city and thus be available to Clement.

And last, Jewish people were most numerous in the imperial city, as Roman historiographers and Flavius Josephus attest. An inscription bearing the word Hebrews and dating from the second century after Christ has been found in Rome.

We feel comfortable with the choice of Rome, although we admit that we can only use a hypothesis. And yet the accumulated facts seem to point to this choice. Perhaps the intention of the author of Hebrews in omitting the place of destination may have been to indicate that his epistle has a message for the church universal. Especially in our day in which we hear the expression

the end time

repeatedly, the message of the Epistle to the Hebrews is most relevant.

G. HOW CAN HEBREWS BE OUTLINED?

A concise outline of Hebrews can easily be committed to memory with the following seven points:

1:1–4	1. Introduction
1:5–2:18	2. Jesus Is Superior to Angels
3:1–4:13	3. Jesus Is Greater Than Moses
4:14–7:28	4. Jesus Is the Great High Priest
8:1–10:18	5. Jesus Is the Mediator of a New Covenant
10:19–12:29	6. Jesus’ Work Is Applied by the Believer
13:1–25	7. Conclusion

Here is a more detailed outline:

1:1–2:18	Jesus’ Superiority and His Role as Savior and High Priest
	A. Introduction	1:1–4
	B. Jesus’ Superiority to Angels	1:5–14
	C. Jesus, Savior and High Priest	2:1–18
3:1–4:13	Jesus’ Superiority to Moses
	A. A Comparison of Jesus and Moses	3:1–6
	B. A Warning Against Unbelief	3:7–19
	C. An Invitation to Enter God’s Rest	4:1–13
4:14–5:10	Jesus’ High Priesthood
	A. Encouragement for the Readers	4:14–16
	B. Enablement of the High Priest	5:1–3
	C. Fulfillment of the High-priestly Office	5:4–10
5:11–6:20	Exhortations
	A. Do Not Fall Away	5:11–6:12
	B. Hold on to God’s Promise	6:13–20
7:1–28	Jesus: High Priest like Melchizedek
	A. Melchizedek, King and Priest	7:1–10
	B. Melchizedek’s Superior Priesthood	7:11–19
	C. Christ’s Superior Priesthood	7:20–28
8:1–10:18	Jesus: High Priest and Sacrifice
	A. The Heavenly Sanctuary	8:1–2
	B. Jesus the Mediator	8:3–6
	C. God’s New Covenant	8:7–13
	D. The Earthly Sanctuary	9:1–10
	E. Jesus’ Sacrificial Blood	9:11–28
	F. Jesus’ Effective Sacrifice	10:1–18
10:19–39	More Exhortations
	A. An Exhortation to Persevere	10:19–25
	B. A Warning to Pay Attention	10:26–31
	C. A Reminder to Continue	10:32–39
11:1–40	The Heroes of Faith
	A. A Definition of Faith	11:1–3
	B. Three Examples of Faith: Abel, Enoch, and Noah	11:4–7
	C. The Faith of Abraham	11:8–19
	D. The Faith of Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph	11:20–22
	E. The Faith of Moses	11:23–29
	F. Faith at Jericho	11:30–31
	G. Known and Unknown Heroes of Faith	11:32–40
12:1–13:25	Admonitions and Exhortations
	A. Divine Discipline	12:1–13
	B. A Divine Warning	12:14–29
	C. Communal Obligations	13:1–6
	D. Ecclesiastical Duties	13:7–17
	E. Prayers and Benedictions	13:18–21
	F. Final Greetings	13:22–25

LXX Septuagint

¹ Ceslaus Spicq, L’Épître aux Hébreux, 2 vols. (Paris: Gabalda, 1952), vol. 1, p. 331.

² B. F. Westcott, Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950), pp. 469–74.

³ F. W. Grosheide, De Brief aan de Hebreeën en de Brief van Jakobus (Kampen: Kok, 1955), p. 43.

⁴ Tertullian, “On Modesty,” Ante-Nicene Fathers (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965), vol. 4, chap. 20, p. 97.

⁵ Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 6.14.4 (LCL).

⁶ Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 6.14.2–3 (LCL).

⁷ Michael Grant, The Twelve Caesars (New York: Scribner’s, 1975), p. 219.

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