Intercession, Invocation, and Worship of Saints. 39
fathers do prescribe hours for the night as well as for the day. And besides the canonical hours, they set down a night-service, and night-watches, as divers authors, viz. Amalarius, ecclesiast. offic., lib.
4, c. 2, ad cap. 11; Rupertus, De divin. offic., lib. 1, cap. 1, ad cap. 8; Rudulphus, in Observ. can. prop. 14; Cassianus, lib. 2, cap. 4; the Council of Agatha as it is cited Distin. 91, cap. Presbyter; Gregory in the decretals, lib. tertio, tit. 41, cap. 1, de celebratione missarum; and Bede also, lib. tertio in Esdram, cap. 28, do testify. You must rise twice or thrice a night, says Jerome to Eustochium. But they will have the midst of the night especially observed, and namely,
Athanasius, De virginit.; Basil, quest. fusius explic. quest. 37; Jerome, Ad Eustoch. de obit.; Paula and Hugo de Sancto Victor, in specul. ecclesi., cap. tertio, et de eccle. offic., lib. 1, cap. primo and 9.
These the Church of Rome does not now follow, for three days before Easter the priests do sing the night service and lauds at evensong, and all the three nocturnes are sung together by the whole choir.
Intercession, Invocation, and Worship of Saints 1. Until 200 years after Christ, the intercession of the dead, and thereupon their invocation, was never heard of in the church of God.
Let any man give an instance to the contrary.
2. Afterward, Origen for one, and others with him, fell to dispute of the intercession of the saints for us, but very doubtful and inconstant was their doctrine hereof until four hundred years were expired.
"Whether the saints," says Origen, lib. 2, in Epist. ad Rom., "that are with God do anything for us, and labor, let this also be reckoned among the secret and hidden mysteries of God, which may not be committed to writing." And again, Homily 3, in Cantic., speaking of
these prayers, he says, though not peremptorily, "As for those holy men which are departed out of this world, retaining as yet their love to those remaining here behind, it shall not be amiss to think of them, that they have a care of their welfare, and that they help them with their prayers." "If you have any care (or understanding, λόγος) of our labors," says Nazianzene unto Gorgonius's soul, in Oratio, de laudibus Gorgnio, "if it be granted unto the divine souls to know and perceive things done here below, then receive you my prayer." And in his first oration against Julian, he says, "Hear also, O you soul of great Constantine, if you have any sense, perceivance, or understanding (εἴ τι αἴσθησις)." And in his oration upon Basil, he likewise says that Basil's soul is in heaven and there offers sacrifice, as I suppose (ὡς οἶμαι). And in his epitaph upon his father, he says,
"He now does more good with his intercession than he did in all his life with his doctrine, as I do persuade myself." And by and by he adds, "If it be not too bold a part to speak thus." So Jerome in Nepotianus's epitaph: "Whatsoever I say," quotes he, "seems mute, because he hears not," and yet a little after he says that he is "among the choirs of angels." So Augustine, in his book of the care for the dead, cap. 16, leaves it undetermined whether the dead martyrs do help us or no, and adds that these things pass our understanding.
And, cap. 13, he proves by Scripture, and namely out of Isaiah 63:16, that the saints know not what is done here below. And in his comment upon the 108th Psalm, he dares not grant that the dead do know the pains and pleasures which happen unto their friends. "The souls of the dead," says the author of the book de Spiritu & Anima, which is among Augustine's works, cap. 29, "are in a place where they neither hear nor see the things which do here happen unto men in this life. Yet they have a care of those that live on earth, though they know not at all what they do, even as we have a care over the dead, though not knowing what they do." "Although the saints do pray for us (as the apostles did for her, meaning the woman of
Canaan), yet shall we be sooner heard when we pray for ourselves," says Theophilact, in Matthew, cap. 15.
3. Besides, the ancient writers do commonly affirm that the souls of the faithful are reserved in secret habitacles (out of heaven), not enjoying the sight of God until the last judgment. So holds Irenaeus, lib. quinto, in fine; Justin Martyr, quest. 60 and quest. 76; Origen, homily septim, in Levit. and lib. 2, periarch; Chrysostom, homil. 39 in 1 Cor. and 18 in Hebr.; Theodoret in Hebr. 11; Theophylact, in Hebr. 11; Euthymius, in Luc., cap. 16 and 23; Aretas, in Apocal., cap.
6; Victor, in Apocal. ibidem; Lactantius, lib. 7, cap. 21; Hilary, in Psalm 138; Prudentius, Hymn. de exequi. Defunctor; Ambrose, de
Cain lib. secundo, cap. 2 and de bone mortis; Augustine, Retract. lib. primo, cap. 14; episto. 3, ad Fortunation; Enchirid. cap. 108; de
Genesi ad literam, lib. 12, cap. 25; de civit. Dei, lib. duadecium, cap. mono; and in Psal. 36. And Bernard also, Ser. de omnibus Sanct. tertio, & Ser. quart. Here it must follow that the fathers either doubted of the intercession of saints, or else contradicted themselves. And in the same manner it may be concluded that so they held limbus patrum, invocation of saints, and the glass of the Trinity.
4. Intercession of saints, whereof the fathers for many ages do commonly speak, is a general intercession for the church, not for this or that particular man. And this intercession our church very willingly acknowledges. As for that particular intercession of particular saints for particular men, it was not so soon believed, but was first of all drawn out of dreams, and rifled out of revelations.
Eusebius in his history, lib. sexto, cap. 4, tells that Potamiena (as it was reported), three days after her martyrdom, appeared to Basilides in the night, setting a crown upon his head, and telling him that she prayed unto the Lord for him. And one Apollo, in a revelation, saw
one of his dead brethren making intercession for him. This is recorded by Palladius, in Histor. Patrum, cap. 52.
5. The fathers teach that the saints do make intercession for us not only openly by prayer, but also mystically, namely, by meriting. "The merits of the mother," says Anselm, lib. De excellentia Maria, "do make intercession to obtain her audience." "That which we cannot bring to pass by our own power," says Ivo, epist. 119, "we hear may be obtained by the merits of the blessed and perpetual virgin."
"Believe," says Berno Augiensis, Serm. secundo de S. Marco, "that whatsoever you pray for by Saint Mark's merits, you shall obtain it."
So the author of the epistle unto Paula and Eustochium in Jerome's works of the assumption of Mary says thus of Mary, "Let her commend us with her merits, and aid and assist us with her prayers, that we also may be found worthy in her commendations." "The saints," says the master of the sentences, lib. quarto, distinctio 45, liter. G, "do make intercession for us, both in their merits and in their affections." Yea, the fathers sometimes give but too much unto the intercession of the saints. So says Severus Sulpitius of Saint
Martin, epistola secunda, that that was his only and his last hope, that what he could not possibly obtain by himself, he should merit and deserve it by Martin's intercession. "We trust and believe," says
Leo, Sermon 1, in natal. Petr. & Paul, "that to obtain God's mercy, we must have continual aid and assistance by the prayers of our especial patrons, that how much our own sins do weigh us down, so much the apostles' merits may lift and raise us up again." "I trust," says
Prosper, lib. De promiss. & praedictione Dei, "to be purely cleansed from all my sins by the prayers of the saints." So Gregory of Terwin,
Lib. quart. vita Sancti Martini in Prolog, says that the saints by their intercession do procure the everlasting punishments to be extinguished, and the language of our offence to be cured. And in the fathers we shall find the saints our immediate intercessors with God.
For so Adrian I, Epist. ad Constant. et Irenen., says that, "The images of the saints are to be worshipped, because it is certain that they are the servants of God and do continually offer up their prayers and intercession unto the Deity for us that do honor them here below."
6. There can be no invocation of the dead proved to have been in the church from Christ unto 350 years after. For in all the works of the fathers that wrote within this limit, no man is able to show any one fit and plain commandment or precept, nor any sincere example for invocation of saints.
7. This invocation began first to be brought into life in the Catholic Church about the year of grace 380, arising out of a custom of the vulgar sort, and some men's private devotions. For the fathers of these times do tell how the saints were invocated, but do not teach that they are to be invocated. Nay, in their more serious disputations and sermons, they do reprehend the invocation of the saints. "All your vows, all prayers, all interpellations, and all our thanksgivings," says Origen against Celsis, lib. quinto, "are to be dedicated unto God the Lord of all things, by and through that High Priest, greater than all angels, the living Word, and God." And again: "This will restrain all men from offering or daring to offer any prayer unto any person, but only unto the Lord God, who only is all-sufficient unto all, through the Savior, the Son of God." So Athanasius against the Arians, Sermone tertio, proves Christ Jesus to be God, because He is called upon, for a creature ought not to be worshipped. And so Epiphanius, Haeres. 79, gives a venerable respect unto Mary, but denies her both adoration and invocation. And Ambrose, in Commentar. in Roman. prim., plainly affirms that he thinks them fools that do adore and worship their fellow servants. And Basil, in Psalm. septim, says, "As it is meet and fit we should worship nothing but God, so ought we not to fasten our hopes upon any but upon
God." As for Jerome, he does not so much as in one place help to build up this invocation of saints, but rather the contrary. For writing against Vigilantius, in Epistola ad Riparium, he plainly avers, "We do not worship nor adore, I do not say, the relics of the martyrs, but neither the sun nor the moon, no, nor the angels, lest we should be thought to serve the creature rather than the Creator." "We neither affirm," says Cyril, Contra Julian, lib. 6, "that the martyrs are gods, neither have we accustomed ourselves to adore them." And Thesaur. lib. secundo, cap. primo: "There is no man that knows not that the Scriptures deny adoration unto every created nature and allow that to God only." Chrysostom, in his true writings, neither uses nor defends this invocation, but rather disallows it. As for example in his homily, De profectu Evangeli.: "But you need not any patron before God," says he, "nor with long discourse to curry favor with others, but though you do come alone without ever a patron, and offer your prayers unto God by yourself, yet shall you obtain your petition. For God does not consent unto our request so easily when others pray for us, as when we pray for ourselves, though we be full fraught with manifold evils." "Let not our religion," says Augustine, De vera
Religione, cap. 55, "be to worship the dead. We are to honor them for imitation's sake, but not to worship them for religion's sake." And De civit. Dei, lib. 22, cap. 10, he says, "We do not build temples unto our martyrs, as unto gods, but we set up memorials for them, as for men departed, whose souls do live in rest with God. Nor do we set up any altars to sacrifice unto them, but we offer our sacrifice unto one only
God, both theirs and ours. At which sacrifice they are named in their order as men of God, who have conquered the world by confessing of Him, but they are not invocated of the priest that sacrifices." (See De civitate Dei, lib. 8, cap. 27.) "Those that defended the law," says
Theodoret, in cap. 2, ad Coloss., "drew on the people unto the worship of angels also, saying that the law was given by them. And this vice remained very long in Phrygia and Pisidia, wherefore the
synod which met at Laodicea, the metropolitan city of Phrygia, did by a decree prohibit all men from praying unto angels. And unto this day there are oratories of Saint Michael to be seen among them and in their borders. And hereunto they did advise men out of their
(exceeding) humility, alleging that the God of all things is both invisible and incomprehensible, and that none can come unto Him, and therefore that they must use the help of the angels to obtain the favor of God by them." So Augustine, Confession., lib. 10, cap. 42, speaking unto God, says, "Whom shall I find that can reconcile me unto my God? Shall I make means unto the angels? By what prayer, or what instruments?" Look also in the same father in his book De moribus ecclesi,. cap. 34.
8. The invocation which was used in these times was properly a dialogue or conference, as with those that were present. Now they were present, either by a rhetorical fiction (as who should say, I will conceive such a one to be present) or in opinion and conceit, for then it was commonly held that the martyrs' souls were always present at the places of their martyrdom, and some believed them to be everywhere. I prove both these conditions thus:
Basil and Nazianzene (as also other fathers), having occasion given them in their panegyrical orations, did in their conclusions (not invoke their friends departed, but) as orators use to do, speak unto them by a figure called Prosopopoeia (a feigning of a person where none is) as though they were present and make some wishes, but no prayers unto them. As when we Englishmen playing at bowls, do in our play bid one bowl run, or rub, etc.
So speaks Nazianzene unto the Passover: "O great and holy Passover, expiation or cleanser of the whole world, for I talk with you as with a living creature, etc." And Invect. 1, in Julianum, "Hear, O you soul of
great Constantine (or rather Constantius, for Constantine died when Julian was about three years old)" (in Jacobi Bill., annot. 2 in hanc
Orat.), "if you have any sense," and a little after, "What is this, O you most divine emperor? For I am forced to expostulate with him, as if he were here present, and heard me, though indeed he be with God."
And in his second invective he calls unto Julian, being dead and damned in hell. And after this manner Dionysius Areopagita,
Hierarch. eccle. cap. 3, part. 5, or the author of that work under his name, has a rhetorical exclamation unto Christ being represented in the bread. And Victor in his book of the Vandal persecution, speaks unto the patriarchs, prophets, and apostles. And Jerome, in his epitaph of Paula, says, "Farewell, O Paula, and by your prayers help the decrepit age of him that honors you." In which words there is no invocation, but an apostrophe whereby he speaks unto her being dead, as though she were present with him. And the same father in Hilarius's life, says thus of Constantia: she was wont to watch whole nights in his sepulcher, and speak to him as if he were present, to further her prayers. And Nyssenus likewise, Oration in S.
Theodorum: "Those that behold," says he, "do embrace, as though the body were living and flourishing, using the eyes, ears, mouth, and instruments of all the senses. And the pouring out the tears of love and duty unto the martyr, as though he were living and present, they offer up their humble prayers unto him, to be an intercessor for them, entreating him as a soldier of God, and calling upon him as one that obtains when he pleases." So Chrysostom, Orat. in Babylam:
"If any man," says he, "do but stand by these sepulchers, the very sight of the coffin invading his soul penetrates it, and stirs it up, moving therein such an affect that he deems them that lie therein buried, to be visibly present with him, and offering their prayers together with him." Now that it was commonly believed that the martyrs' souls were still present at their sepulchers, or where they would, Jerome's reprehension of Vigilantius (who denies this)
plainly testifies: "You," says Jerome, contra Vigilant., cap. 2, "do affirm that the souls of the apostles and martyrs are placed either in Abraham's bosom, or the place of repose, or under God's altar, and that they cannot be present at their tombs and where themselves please." And he answers him thus: "If the Lamb be everywhere, then those that are with the Lamb must be believed to be everywhere. And seeing the devils and evil spirits do wander all over the world, and through their too great celerity are everywhere present, is it like that the martyrs after the shedding of their blood should be shut up in their Coffins and not be able to get out thereof?" So Maximus Taurinensis, in natal. Martyr Tauricorum, says, "All the saints are everywhere, and assist all men, and are always with us, and stay still with us, that is, do both keep and defend us while we are in our bodies, and also do receive and entertain us when we leave our bodies." And the like saying has Severus Sulpitius of Saint Martin, epist. 2: "He is present," says he, "with all that talk of him, and stands by them all."
But that this is very boldly affirmed, and weakly concluded, who sees not? Though for excuse's sake we may say that these writers used ubiq for passim, or ubilibet.
9. The fathers in their prayers and communion were accustomed to recite the names of the martyrs and other saints, desiring God withal to grant them this or that by their entreaties or intercessions. "When we offer this sacrifice," says Cyril, Catechis. 5, "we make mention of them that are departed before us, that God may receive our prayers by their intercession." "Therefore, at the communion," says
Augustine, in Joan., tract. 84, "we mention not them as we do the others that rest in peace, or that we should pray for them, but rather that they may pray for us." And such are the commemorations of the saints in the liturgies that are named after James, Basil, Chrysostom,
or that of the Church of Rome. But these public prayers (as also many other private ones) were but certain vows and desires, that the prayers which they believed the saints did offer up for the whole church might be beneficial unto them before God, as George
Cassander did very well observe. Such also is the vow of Prudentius in lib. Περί σεφηάνον, in fine hymni. 10, concerning the punishment of Romanius the martyr:
Would I might chance among the goats to stand, And be discern'd by all on the right hand;
And that at his entreat the King should say, Romanus kneels, bring me that kid away:
Be he a lamb, and clothed with my wool, etc.
10. The fathers, especially those after the first 400 years, have erred in the invocation of saints, yea, are guilty even of sacrilege, for they do sometimes put their faith, hope and trust in them. So erred
Paulinus speaking unto Felix, in natal. 3:
Obtain that God would pardon us our sin By thy just prayers and merits.
And again, in natali 6:
Lifting his soul to heaven and comforted With faith, he hopes he has already sped,
And to Saint Felix courts with haste is carried.
And a little after:
For God has made for wearied souls a rest:
Ease for the grieved, and salve for hearts oppressed.
And in another place, in natal. 8:
Let us unto this patron haste.
Together with hope united fast.
We pray thee Felix be Our right hand still, and tower of safety.
And so says Fortunatus of Martin, in his life, lib. 2:
Reverend, whom I with heart and voice adore, Help me poor wretch, it's mercy I implore.
And presently after:
O blessed Mediator be Receive my grieved Lord and me.
And so Leo, Ser. 1, de nat. Petr. & Paul, c. 7, says, "Look how much our own sins do cast us down, so much the apostles' merits do raise us up." And Gregor., Hom. 32, in Evang.: "Make these the protectors of you in your guilt," says he, lib. 22, epistol. 21: "We hope in the virtue of Almighty God, and of Peter, the prince of the apostles." So Ephrem, Fulgentius, and Damianus do all exceed all means in the praises of the blessed virgin. "He has magnified you," says
Damianus, de nativ. Marie., Sermo. 2, "that is mighty, and unto you is given all power in heaven and earth, and nothing is impossible unto you to whom it is possible to elevate those that are desperate, unto hope of blessedness. For how can that power hinder your power, which took flesh of your flesh? For you come unto that golden altar of man's reconciliation, not only as king, but even commanding; not as a servant, but as a lady and mistress."
And sometimes they stick not to say that they do know all things, as Paulinus, natal. 6:
You know their mansions that in Christ's light, Sees all, though hid and absent from your sight,
And in the all-knowing God, knows everything aright.
So likewise holds Prosper de vita contemp., lib. 1, cap. 4, "No secrets," says he, "shall be hid from the perfect, who are to see God
Himself, which is better than all these, with their pure hearts."
11. The use of invocation which in elder times had been but private men's custom, about the 500th year began to become public. For then began Petrus Gnaphaeus to shuffle the invocation of saints among the prayers of the church. For it is called his invention to name the virgin Mary, and to invoke her divine name in every prayer
(see Niceph., lib. 15, cap. 8). And about the 600th year, Gregory the Great commanded a litany to be publicly sung, wherein all the saints were invoked. So that the commemoration of the saints was at that time turned into invocation.
12. This opinion of invocation of saints had a large part of the original from dreams, visions, doubtful and uncertain revelations, yea and was most of all confirmed by such means. "It fell out," says
Sigonius, De reg. Ital., lib. 1, "that which way soever the image (of the virgin Mary) was carried, the mortal pestilence of the air did depart, and good health followed, for which blessing all men giving thanks, an angel was heard out of heaven, speaking unto the blessed virgin in these words: 'Rejoice, O queen of heaven, allelujah; because she whom you deserves to bear allelujah, is risen again according to his word, allelujah.' Which speech, when Gregory heard, being forthwith inspired by the Holy Ghost, he thus concluded it: 'Pray for us unto
God,'" allelujah, ad anno 591. So one Conradus, a German, penitent for his sins, coming unto Rome, Hilderbrand, then pope, commanded him to wear a coat of mail instead of his shirt, and fastened it with five chains, giving him sealed letters, containing the catalogue of his sins, and commanding him to go visit all the holy
places of the earth, to try if he could obtain any pardon or remission for his sins. When he had continued in prayer from the first hour of the day until the ninth (at Saint Steven the king's tomb in Hungary), falling into a dead sleep before the altar, the holy king appeared unto him. "Arise my friend," quotes he. "You shall obtain no pardon of God by any merits or help of mine, but go unto my son Emerike's tomb, which is here hard by, and he by his virginity has deserved chief favor with God." He, awaking out of his dream, invokes the name of that saint, and swifter than thought, his chains wherewith he was bound, burst all in pieces. His letters opened of themselves (the seal being broken up) wherein there was not one sin, no, not one letter to be read or seen. And from that time forward, that chapel was had in such reverence that men came unto it from the farthest countries (according to Bonisinius, lib. 1, decad. 2).
13. The power of canonizing was never heard of with the fathers until the year 880, and then Adrian took up this authority. And Alexander
III after him confirmed it in his decrees (according to cap. 1, Extra. de reliquiis Sanctorum).
14. The distinction of religious worship into dulia (saint-worship) and latria (God-worship) was never known by the apostles, nor the Greek fathers, nor the Latins for at least 400 years after Christ. For Scripture in diverse places ascribes latria (in the Greek translation) unto men: Deuteronomy 28:48, Leviticus 23:8; and in other places dulia is attributed unto God, Romans 16:18. So Augustine grants latria unto men (De Civitate Dei, lib. 10, cap. 1), and denies them religious dulia (De Vera Religione, c. 55). "We honor the saints," says he, "with charity, not with service," that is, dulia. And here observe: first, that Augustine denies dulia unto saints. And in Question 94 on Exodus, he gives both latria and dulia unto God; latria as to God, dulia as to the Lord. Second, by latria and dulia he distinguishes
religious worship from civil (De Civitate Dei, lib. 10, c. 1 and 4).
Third, latria is always used in the Scriptures for service, as he affirms, much less that it should be anything more than dulia (De
Civitate Dei, lib. 5, c. 15; lib. 6, c. 1; lib. 7, c. 32; lib. 10, c. 1 and 4).
Indeed, dulia politica, that is, service used in a civil state, was always received, and so ought to be still by all men (Galatians 5:13). But that dulia which is higher than civil worship was not given to men for 400 years after Christ. And no wonder: for δουλεύειν is commonly a greater thing, and used for servitude without any wages, because he that serves is in another's power. But Suidas says, λατρείαν δουλείαν εἰναι ἐπὶ μισθῷ, that the word latria signifies a service for hire.
Hereupon Peresius (De Traditionibus, part. 1, consid. 7) disproves the name dulia being taken for saint-worship, because he will have it given unto God, not unto men, as they are God's servants, unless you take the name of service metaphorically and not properly. So Laurence Valla and Lodwicke Vives (in Augustine, De Civitate Dei, lib. 10, cap. 1) do both take latria and dulia for one thing, and in one sense. Wherefore this distinction was invented by men of the later ages, which indeed Bellarmine acknowledges. Howbeit, it is in Bede upon Luke, in cap. 4, and in Lombard and all his followers
(Sententiae, lib. 3, dist. 9).
15. That Christ's image is to be worshipped with latria is denied by many: as by Henricus (Quodlibet 1, q. 6), who says it must be worshipped but with hyperdulia; Albertus Magnus (Mariale, cap. 81);
Francis Maira (In 3 Sent., distinct. 9); Gabriel (Lectio 49, in Canonem); and Peresius (De Traditionibus, part. 3). The second
Nicene Council (Action 2 and 3) gives worship unto images, but denies them latria. And this latria was not given unto Christ's image for 1000 years after Him. This Catharinus freely confesses in his book De Imaginum Cultu, where also he affirms that Thomas never read that Council of Nicea.
16. The "Glass (or idea) of the Trinity," wherein the saints are said to see our prayers, is a mere fiction, unknown unto the fathers for the space of many ages after Christ. Augustine (De Cura pro Mortuis
Gerenda, cap. 13) affirms that the souls of the departed never know what we do here upon earth, and brings for proof thereof that of Isaiah 63:16: "Abraham has not known us," and that of the kings in 2
Kings 22: "I will gather you to your fathers,, that your eye see not the destruction which I will bring upon this place." And the fathers of the first four ages after Christ did commonly affirm that the saints were present with those that called upon them, and therefore heard them.
Yet was not this opinion approved of all the latter writers; for some of them do deny that the souls of the godly do know our prayers in the word or divine essence, as Durandus (Distinctio 39, quaestio 3);
Soto (ibid., quaestio 3, articulus 3, conclusio 8); and Cajetan (In Thomae part. 3, quaestio 10, articulus 2), but only in their proper kind by particular revelations.
17. The worship given unto the saints, whereof the fathers commonly speak, was a worship of love, society, veneration, and honoring of them, in imitation, gratulation, esteem, praise, and holy remembrance of them, belonging unto the second table, and not any religious worship or adoration; because that at first they were not worshipped with churches, oblations, nor appointed service, as they were afterwards, and are at this day in the Church of Rome. This
Augustine testifies in three several places, viz. in Psal. 88; De civit.
Dei 8, cap. 27; Contra Faust., lib. 20, cap. 4 and 21. And Eusebius likewise affirms it, Hist., lib. 4, cap. 15. And Alexander Ales, q. 92, memb. 1, art. 4, disputes that God alone is simply to be called upon, and the saints are rather of the number of those that pray continually, than of him that is prayed unto. And this did Cassander very well observe in him, in consultatione super art. Controver., artic.
21.