The Reformation's Return to Paul and Augustine
he foresees. For them, reprobation is always based on God's foreknowledge of human actions, not on an unconditional decision by God.
Some theologians, such as Hincmar of Reims, take a softer view, arguing that God predestines punishment for the wicked but not the wicked themselves for punishment.
Summary Predestination to grace and glory emphasizes God's sovereignty, but views differ on whether it is based purely on God's will
(Augustinians and Thomists) or on foreseen merits (Molinists).
Reprobation, or God's decision not to save some, is explained differently:
Augustine's followers see it as part of God's justice, leaving sinners in their guilt.
Molinists base it on God's foreknowledge of human choices, rejecting the idea that God unconditionally decides to withhold salvation.
These theological discussions reflect attempts to balance God's sovereignty with human responsibility, showing both the richness and complexity of Christian teaching on grace and salvation.
The Reformation's Return to Paul and Augustine The Reformation rediscovered the teachings of Paul and Augustine on God's sovereign election, using this doctrine to counter the
Pelagian tendencies in the Roman Catholic Church, which emphasized human effort in salvation. All the Reformers—Luther,
Zwingli, and Calvin—were initially united on this point. Early in his ministry, Martin Luther vigorously defended the doctrine of predestination, emphasizing that salvation is entirely the result of God's grace and not human merit. This conviction aligned with his teaching that humans, because of their sinful nature, are powerless to do spiritual good without divine intervention.
However, Luther's focus shifted over time. In his debates with the Anabaptists, he emphasized God's work through the Word and sacraments, which he saw as the means by which grace is made available. While he never denied predestination, Luther increasingly concentrated on the revealed aspects of God's will—his desire to save through the gospel—rather than exploring the hidden decrees of God's sovereignty. He refrained from speculative discussions about predestination and chose to emphasize justification by faith as the heart of the Christian message.
Melanchthon's Shift Toward Synergism Philip Melanchthon, Luther's close collaborator, initially upheld the same view of predestination, as seen in the first edition of his Loci
Communes (1521) and his commentary on Romans 9. However, from 1527 onward, Melanchthon increasingly moved toward synergism
—the idea that salvation involves a cooperative effort between God's grace and human will. In later editions of the Loci (beginning in 1535) and the revised Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana variata, 1540), Melanchthon openly taught that humans play a role in responding to God's grace. This synergistic teaching, which emphasized human responsibility, was a departure from the original
Reformation emphasis on God's sovereign election.
Melanchthon's synergism was firmly rejected by the "true"
Lutherans, such as Flacius and others, who upheld the teaching that faith is entirely a gift of God. These Lutherans insisted that humans, by nature, are incapable of spiritual good and that salvation depends solely on God's sovereign grace.
Lutheran Perspectives on Predestination The Formula of Concord (1577), a key Lutheran confessional document, affirmed humanity's total dependence on grace. It declared that human will is bound by sin and incapable of good apart from God. It also taught that election to salvation is unconditional and based solely on God's will. However, the Formula avoided detailed discussions of predestination, emphasizing instead God's universal will to save as revealed in the gospel. The focus was placed on faith and unbelief as secondary causes, with unbelief being the sole reason for human condemnation. While the Formula did not deny election, it left the relationship between predestination and God's foreknowledge somewhat open to interpretation.
Tensions and Developments Over time, Lutheran theologians wrestled with the relationship between God's sovereignty and human responsibility. Some, like
Aegidius Hunnius, distinguished between:
Foreknowledge: God's awareness of all future events, including human choices.
Predestination: God's gracious choice to save individuals, based entirely on Christ's merits.
This distinction allowed Lutherans to affirm that salvation is entirely by grace, while human condemnation (reprobation) is due to sin and
unbelief. Some Lutheran theologians introduced the idea of God's will in two parts:
1. Antecedent Will: God's universal desire for all people to be saved.
2. Consequent Will: God's determination to save only those who believe, based on his foreknowledge of their faith.
This approach sought to balance the seriousness of God's desire for universal salvation with the reality that not all respond in faith.
Key Takeaways The Reformation, led by Luther and others, emphasized God's sovereign grace in salvation, rejecting any role for human merit.
Melanchthon's shift toward synergism represented a departure from this emphasis, introducing the idea that humans cooperate with God's grace.
Lutheran confessions like the Formula of Concord upheld the bondage of human will and the unconditional nature of election while focusing on God's universal offer of salvation in the gospel.
The Lutheran Shift and the Reformed Commitment to Predestination After the Synod of Dort (1618–1619) condemned the Remonstrants
(followers of Arminianism), many Lutherans began to feel uneasy, believing that their own teachings on grace and free will had also been rejected. Over time, Lutheran theologians increasingly aligned with the Remonstrant view on predestination.
1. The Lutheran Approach to Predestination:
They taught an antecedent will of God, meaning that God desires the salvation of all people. Christ's death was for everyone, and the gospel is offered universally.
They also taught a consequent will of God, where God grants salvation only to those whose faith in Christ he foresees, while those who resist grace are left to perish.
By the 18th century, the focus on God's universal will to save had largely overshadowed any emphasis on his sovereign choice.
Predestination was reinterpreted as God's general plan to save all humanity through faith in Christ. Thinkers like Herder celebrated the disappearance of debates over grace, considering them outdated.
Philosophers such as Kant even suggested that human moral ability was sufficient to fulfill God's requirements without needing to address predestination.
2. The Reformed Commitment:
Unlike the Lutherans, the Reformed churches remained committed to the teaching of sovereign election. They upheld the centrality of God's grace in salvation, rejecting any idea that human free will could contribute to salvation.
Zwingli grounded predestination not only in human sinfulness but also in the very nature of God. Calvin, deeply influenced by Paul's Letter to the Romans, developed this doctrine further, emphasizing human inability and God's sovereign choice.
Calvin's writings, including his Institutes of the Christian Religion and various treatises, robustly defended the doctrine against critics like Albert Pighius and others. His work helped ensure that predestination became a core teaching in all Reformed churches.
Differences Among Reformed Confessions
While the Reformed churches universally affirmed predestination, there were variations in how the doctrine was presented:
Minimal Mentions: Some confessions, like Calvin's Genevan Catechism and the Heidelberg Catechism, only briefly reference election.
Moderate Expressions: Documents like the Second Helvetic Confession and the Anglican Articles emphasize predestination to life while presenting it in a balanced and restrained manner.
More Detailed Statements: The most explicit and rigorous formulations of predestination are found in documents like the Canons of Dort, the Irish Articles of 1615, and the Westminster
Confession. These confessions present a clear and detailed understanding of God's sovereign election and reprobation.
Key Takeaways 1. The Lutherans gradually distanced themselves from their original position on predestination, favoring a view that emphasized God's universal desire to save everyone and made election dependent on human faith.
2. The Reformed churches, following leaders like Zwingli and Calvin, upheld God's absolute sovereignty in salvation, emphasizing that faith itself is a gift of God's grace.
3. While all Reformed confessions affirm predestination, they differ in how explicitly and extensively they address it, ranging from brief references to detailed doctrinal formulations.
This distinction highlights the steadfast commitment of the Reformed tradition to God's sovereign grace, even as other theological movements shifted toward a more human-centered understanding of salvation.
Approaches to Predestination: A Matter of Perspective Among theologians, there have been differing approaches to the doctrine of predestination. Some, concerned about how the doctrine might be misunderstood or misused, approached it from the perspective of human experience. They began with the evidence of faith and conversion in a believer's life and then reasoned back to God's eternal election. This perspective viewed the doctrine of election as a source of comfort and assurance for those who believe.
Theologians like Bullinger, Ursinus, and Olevianus often followed this approach.
However, this does not mean they disagreed with the core Calvinistic understanding of predestination. All these theologians clearly affirmed the doctrine of God's sovereign election. Even Calvin himself, known for emphasizing predestination, was cautious in discussing it. For instance, he omitted it entirely from his Genevan
Catechism. Similarly, Reformed confessions, such as the Canons of Dort and the Westminster Confession, warn against delving too deeply into speculative or "curious" inquiries about this doctrine.
Two Ways of Addressing Predestination Historically, theologians have approached predestination in two ways:
1. From Effect to Cause (A Posteriori): This method begins with faith and salvation in the believer's life and then traces them back to God's eternal election. It emphasizes the experience of grace and uses election as a foundation for assurance. Paul's writings in Romans 9–11 and Ephesians 1:3–6 sometimes reflect this approach, as they move from God's work in salvation to the underlying reality of election.
2. From Cause to Effect (A Priori): This method starts with God's eternal decree of election and sees it as the source of all the benefits of salvation. It recognizes election as the foundation of faith and grace. For the Reformed tradition, this approach reflects the deep conviction that salvation begins with God's sovereign will, rooted in his eternal purpose for his glory.
Over time, the Reformed tradition generally adopted the a priori method, placing predestination under the doctrine of God. This approach highlights that predestination is not just about humanity's salvation (an anthropological or soteriological concern) but is ultimately about the glory and honor of God (a theological concern).
The Reformed Focus on God's Glory The Reformed tradition emphasizes that predestination is grounded in God's revelation in Scripture, not in philosophical speculation. For the Reformed, the primary concern is not merely human salvation but the honor and majesty of God. This theological focus ensures that predestination is understood as part of God's overarching plan to glorify himself, rather than being reduced to a dry or abstract theory.
True faith is essential to fully grasp and affirm not only the doctrine of election but all other teachings about God, such as the Trinity or humanity's sinfulness. The Reformed tradition insists that theology must present the truth as God reveals it in Scripture, not just as believers experience it in their lives. By beginning with God's eternal purpose, the Reformed approach safeguards the ultimate purpose of all doctrine: the glory of God.
Key Takeaways