Appendix B: Notable Figures and Significant Movements in Church History

Appendix B: Notable Figures and Significant Movements in Church History

RICHARD J. FOSTER AND LYNDA L. GRAYBEAL

A WORD FROM RICHARD

This appendix provides you with a sampling of the key figures and significant movements in the Traditions you have just read about (Contemplative, Holiness, Charismatic, Social Justice, Evangelical, and Incarnational) — figures and movements that correspond with the timelines found at the beginning of Chapters 2 through 7. I know that some readers will protest that their favorite person or movement is not listed. To this objection I can only say that this listing is meant to be suggestive, not exhaustive. I tried to list not fewer than thirty and not more than forty people for each Tradition, along with half a dozen movements. In some cases this self-imposed restriction was excruciating — a little like cutting off a finger or an ear. Over seventy of my favorites did not make the cut! But I believe enough are included to give you a sense of each Tradition.

In addition, the categories are far from perfect. For instance, certain individuals could be listed under several different Traditions. This should be expected, for every great spiritual movement has included many, if not all, of these great “streams of living water.” A good case could be made, for example, for placing John Wesley in the Evangelical Tradition rather than Holiness, or for placing John Woolman in the Incarnational Tradition rather than Social Justice. The same is true of the movements: the Franciscans could be in the Charismatic and the Social Justice and the Evangelical Traditions, for example. But I have tried to accent the major contribution of each person and movement.

The compiling of this appendix has been a collaborative effort between me and my Administrative Associate, Lynda L. Graybeal. Lynda has done the lion’s share of research and virtually all of the descriptive writing.

A WORD FROM LYNDA

While working on the thumbnail sketches, I was impressed by the uniqueness of the people profiled. Some of them were brilliant, original thinkers; others borrowed ideas, only systematizing their predecessors’ work. Some were educators and scholars; others were homemakers and farmers. Some were monks and nuns; others were married with children. Some were nobility; others were commoners. But their stories are all different, all original. Their unique humanness inspires me.

I also rediscovered how much Jesus’ followers interacted with the world around them and with each other. Even in the early centuries of the Church an amazing amount of cross-pollination took place. Christianity was born in the midst of culture and people, not in a vacuum, and many times an idea that we today think is new and original is only a rediscovery of an earlier one.

Other qualities that impressed me were the perseverance, courage, and love of God these people displayed. For the first eighteen centuries of the life of the Church, conditions for human survival were perilous at best. Each person lived precariously, for an illness, broken bone, or failed crop could mean calamity, even death. In spite of this, they were truly alive to God, preaching, teaching, serving, traveling, and more. Some died while young; others lived to a great age. In either case, the kingdom of God went forward.

One more comment. You may wonder why we place a person who develops liturgy in the Charismatic Stream, or someone who translates the Bible into another language in the Evangelical Stream. The Charismatic Stream emphasizes worship renewal as well as Spirit-empowerment. With regard to the Evangelical Stream, because languages arise, change, and die, it is vital to evangelism to have the Scriptures available in the everyday language of the people.

For easy reference, the listing is alphabetical. I hope you enjoy these tiny glimpses into the lives and movements that make up the living history of the Church.

Abolition Movement (18th century to the present) — Social Justice

The Quaker example of freeing slaves and their campaign to ban slavery awakened the conscience of two key figures: William Wilberforce in England and William Lloyd Garrison in the United States. With other reformers Wilberforce, a member of Parliament, worked unstintingly to abolish slavery in the British Empire. It happened in two stages: a bill outlawing the slave trade was passed in 1807, and in 1833 slavery itself was abolished.

In the United States Garrison published the antislavery newspaper The Liberator, which brought the issue before a wide audience. He was joined in his antislavery efforts by many others, including Levi Coffin, James Russell Lowell, John Greenleaf Whittier, Wendell Philipps, Lucretia Mott, and freed slaves James Forten, Robert Purvis, Frederick Douglass, and Sojourner Truth. Sadly, it took a Civil War, the Emancipation Proclamation, untold deaths, and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution to end slavery. Most of the activity to ban slavery during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries took place in the U.S. and England, but now movements to ban it worldwide are arising.

Adamnan (or Eunan) (c. 625-704) — Social Justice

Born in the county of Donegal (Ireland), Adamnan followed in the footsteps of Columba, the founder of the monastery at Iona, by living at that monastery. He is remembered for negotiating the release of captives from the Northumbrians (Britains) and for persuading participants of the Council of Birr to exempt women from active participation in warfare and to protect them and their children from being killed or taken prisoners of war. Far ahead of its time, this decision became known as “Adamnan’s Law.”

Adelaide (?-999) — Incarnational

The Italian mother of the German emperor, the gentle, peace-loving, forgiving, and gracious Adelaide survived numerous politically motivated misfortunes to become regent of Germany in 991. As one of few West European women monarchs ever, she was able to bring the work of the kingdom of God directly into the press of human need by founding and restoring monasteries for monks and nuns and urging the conversion of the Slavs.

Aelred (or Ailred) of Rievaulx (c. 1110-1167) — Contemplative

Aelred is best known for his influential and poetic spiritual writings, which include Speculum Caritatis (Mirror of Love) and Spiritual Friendship. The latter book has had a significant influence on forming the context for healthy and abiding friendships within contemplative communities. A Cistercian abbot, Aelred was raised in the Scottish court, and from the Rievaulx Abbey in Yorkshire he advised English kings and bishops, influencing public policy for decades.

Aidan of Lindisfarne (?-651) — Social Justice

When the king of Bernicia (Northumbria/Britain) requested aid from the monastery at Iona to Christianize northeastern England, the abbot sent a monk who was soon replaced by Aidan. Establishing monasteries and churches from his base on the island of Lindisfarne just off the coast, Aidan helped children and slaves; and (in a time when slavery was accepted unquestioningly) he purchased the freedom of slaves with gifts he received. This important work was carried forward at Aidan’s death by twelve youths he had trained.

Alcuin of York (c. 732-804) -Charismatic

A scholar in the court of Charlemagne (Charles the Great), Alcuin is known as the most prominent figure in the continental Carolingian renaissance (the revival of classical training) during the early Middle Ages. Educated at the York Cathedral school (England), which had one of the best libraries in Christianity, he became an influential though unoriginal writer in several fields: history, poetry, education, and theology. A concern close to Alcuin’s heart — liturgical reform and worship — continues to be emphasized in an English society known as the Alcuin Club.

Alfred the Great (849-899) — Incarnational

In spite of his Wessex authority being interrupted in three cycles by wars with the Danes, Alfred helped revive learning in England by gathering together notable scholars. From them Alfred learned Latin, which he used to translate several books into Anglo-Saxon (including Gregory the Great’s Pastoral Care). He also founded a palace school and monasteries. In adulthood, Alfred tried to give half of his time and money to religious endeavors. His was a life that wed work and faith.

Ambrose of Milan (c. 339-397) — Evangelical

Ambrose is most often remembered for his lasting influence on his most famous catechumen, Augustine of Hippo. Trained in rhetoric and law with a background in the Roman government prior to ordination as bishop of Milan, he served as counselor and guide to several emperors. In addition to evangelizing in Milan and encouraging missionary efforts, Ambrose was an effective preacher and writer. The ethical treatise On the Duties of the Church’s Servants was his most influential work.

American Civil Rights Movement (20th century to the present) — Social Justice

Passed after the Civil War, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution abolished slavery; the Fourteenth Amendment gave African-American men their citizenship; the Fifteenth Amendment prohibited the states from denying any man the right to vote based on race. Though social and political equality was codified, the reality was much different: blacks were denied basic rights by fiat and forced to contend with assigned seating in public places (always at the back or least desirable location), “colored” restrooms and water fountains, exclusion from social clubs and top-level jobs, and (in the South) extra restrictions attached to voting. The contemporary movement toward correcting these injustices started in 1954, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional — hence all “separate but equal” and exclusionary practices against women, the disabled, racial groups, and more were open to challenge.

Anabaptists (16th century to the present) — Holiness

The Anabaptists (“rebaptizers,” an oxymoron; see below) trace their spiritual ancestry to several humble groups of the Middle Ages — groups that, convinced by the New Testament record, tried to reproduce the simplicity and commitment of first-century Christians. They rejected the association between church and state prevalent in sixteenth-century Europe, accepted the Bible as the sole law of the Christian Church, practiced pacifism, and believed in adult baptism as a sign of conversion to Christ. Significant leaders include Menno Simons, Felix Manz, Conrad Grebel, Balthasar Hubmaier, Hans Denck, and George Blaurock. Setting up separate, free communities, the Anabaptists expanded into most of Europe by the end of the Protestant Reformation. Their legacy includes Mennonite, Brethren, and Amish churches, and Bruderhof communities.

Anthony, Susan B. (1820-1906) — Social Justice

First joining the temperance movement (where she was not allowed to serve in a leadership role), Anthony, a Massachusetts (United States) Quaker, dropped out and started the Woman’s State Temperance Society of New York. Heading up the effort, she became increasingly aware that women had limited rights. Upon meeting in 1851, she and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed a fast friendship. Both worked in the abolition movement during the Civil War but left soon after it ended to focus their energies on women’s suffrage. (Though leaders of the abolition movement supported the right of black men to vote, they showed little interest in helping secure the same right for women.) Working tirelessly, Anthony published a weekly journal, co-edited History of Woman Suffrage, co-founded the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and served as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. She died fourteen years before the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution gave women the right to vote.

Antony of Egypt (c. 251-356) — Contemplative

See Chapter 2.

Antony of Kiev (or Anthony of Pechersky) (?-c. 1073) — Contemplative

Although monastic life in Russia already existed before the eleventh century, Antony is considered its founder. He first experienced monastic life at Mount Athos in Greece. When he returned home to Russia, he found himself unable to settle down in any of the established monasteries. Finally settling in a cave overlooking the city of Kiev, he, like his namesake Antony of Egypt, relished his solitude and contemplation. But others gathered around him and proceeded to build a church and enlarge nearby caves, founding the Monastery of the Caves (or Pechersky Lavra).

Aquinas, Thomas (1225-1274) — Evangelical

Considered by many to be the greatest philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages, Aquinas’s Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles are authoritative, systematic, intellectual statements of Christian faith. Putting forth Aquinas’s distinctive natural theology and natural law ethic, they have influenced the development of theology, philosophy, ethics, and other issues in Western government and society. Italian by birth, Benedictine by fate, Dominican by choice, he carried the nickname “Dumb Ox” because of his physical bulk and silence at debates.

Asbury, Francis (1745-1816) — Holiness

English-born Francis Asbury was converted at fourteen, began preaching at sixteen, became a lay preacher at twenty-one, and volunteered to go as a missionary to the American Colonies at twenty-six. Upon arrival, he assumed leadership of four Methodist Episcopal missionaries, hence becoming the father of U.S. Methodism, a “holiness” denomination. As the first American “itinerant” preacher, he traveled by horseback an estimated quarter of a million miles, helping spread Methodism to every state east of the Mississippi.

Athanasios of Constantinople (c. 1230-c. 1121) — Holiness

Twice serving as patriarch of Constantinople, Athanasios worked fearlessly for reform in the Byzantine Empire. According to John L. Boojamra, Athanasios believed that only a centralized government “could serve the needs of the people and maintain good order in state and church.” He consequently condemned officials for taking presents, seeking compensation, unfairly judging the cases of orphans, “milking” the people through inequitable tax collection, expecting bribes, and more. He also worked for reform within the Orthodox Church, fiercely attacking leaders who had betrayed their duties. Practices he uncovered and denounced in leaders included using church monies for their own gain, taking bribes, working to get a higher rank, and loaning church monies but keeping the interest for themselves. With his emphasis in two areas — Social Justice and Holiness — Athanasios stands as an example of integrating more than one Tradition into the fabric of life.

Athanasius (c. 295-373) — Evangelical

Bishop of Alexandria (Egypt) and “Champion of Orthodoxy,” Athanasius was exiled five times by four different emperors during his forty-five-year struggle to defeat state-sponsored Arianism. A trained theologian, he accompanied Bishop Alexander to the Council of Nicea (325) and succeeded him upon Alexander’s death. Athanasius used his power and visibility to openly defend the trinitarian formulation in the Nicene Creed in a treatise titled On the Decrees of the Nicene Synod, which complemented an earlier work, On the Incarnation. As he had laid the groundwork for the Nicene party’s eventual triumph, victory over Arianism came in 381 at the Council of Constantinople.

Augustine of Hippo (354-430) — Evangelical

See Chapter 6.

Bach, Johann Sebastian (1685-1750) —Incarnational

Trained on violin and organ, Bach became cantor at St. Thomas’s School, Leipzig (Germany), and organist and music director at two Lutheran churches in 1723. In these established positions he composed pieces that reflect his Christian faith and were first used during worship services. Most people are familiar with The Passion of St. John, Christmas Oratorio, and his most famous choral work, Mass in B Minor. Capping almost one thousand years of Christian music, he composed some of the most technically brilliant pieces ever written and became the father of modern music.

Baillie, John (1886-1960) — Contemplative

Best remembered for his devotional classic, A Diary of Private Prayer, John Baillie was also a theologian, educator, and ecumenical leader. He served on the faculties of seminaries and colleges, moderated the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) General Assembly, and attended the first gathering of the World Council of Churches. With “prayers for all the mornings and evenings of the months,” Baillie’s Diary provides windows into his heart and leads us into worship.

Basil the Great (c. 330-379) — Evangelical

Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa were known as “the three Cappadocian fathers” — religious leaders in Cappadocia (present-day Central Turkey) who helped shape eastern Christian thought. Basil was occupied primarily with four tasks: getting monasticism recognized as a normal part of church life, mending the schism caused by Arianism, continuing charitable works, and, most important, defending the orthodox Nicene understanding of the Trinity. As bishop of Caesarea, he organized Eastern monasticism, emphasizing seven periods of prayer per day and giving aid to the poor and sick. After Athanasius’s death, Basil co-led the “new Nicene” party. But he died before seeing the schism healed and Arianism defeated.

Baxter, Richard (1615-1691) — Holiness

Baxter was ordained by the Church of England but allied himself with the Puritan cause two years later. Though self-educated, he was eloquent, and his preaching drew large crowds. His moderate stance led him to seek reconciliation between political and theological enemies, even though that stance led to imprisonment. Of his two hundred writings, The Saints’ Everlasting Rest, one of the most widely read books of the seventeenth century, continues to provide motivation, assurance, and a method of meditation (which he borrowed from Puritan Joseph Hall) to those people of God seeking “rest” (Heb. 4:9, KJV).

Benedict of Aniane (c. 750-821) — Contemplative

Beginning his career in the Holy Roman Empire under Pepin and Charlemagne, the Burgundian Benedict left the court and became a monk. Discontented after practicing the Rules of Benedict of Nursia, Pachomius, and Basil, he founded a monastery at Aniane (Germany), where he systematized the Benedictine Rule. Emperor Louis, recognizing Benedict’s talents for organization, appointed him to the Empire’s court and provided inspectors to check on the implemention of the Rule, a great help in bringing constancy to ninth-century European monastic life.

Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-c. 547) — Contemplative

Founder of the movement that bears his name, Benedict established the model for monastic communal life at Monte Cassino (Italy). His Rule had the effect of gathering the roving prophets of the time into communities of loving, nurturing accountability. He provided connectedness to the past with his rule of “spiritual reading,” simple accountability with his rule of “stability,” and rootedness to common life with his rule of “daily manual labor.” Born in Nursia and educated in rhetoric and law in Rome, he died at Monte Cassino.

Benedictines (6th century to the present) — Contemplative

Founded by Benedict of Nursia in the sixth century, the Benedictine way of life became the norm for Western monasticism. Each monastery is stable and self-supporting, and its members are devoted to following Christ. Each person is required to renounce personal possessions, practice continence, and stay in the community for life. And each member has three tasks: praising God in corporate worship, working in the fields, and practicing lectio divina (“spiritual reading”).

Benen (or Benignus) (?-467) — Evangelical

According to legend, as a child in Ireland Benen attached himself to Patrick (the Christian missionary who was later canonized) and became his disciple. Though this story may not be true, he certainly had some connection with Patrick, because their names are coupled in the civil, military, and criminal code of laws Senchus ***Mór, and he is known as “Patrick’s psalmodist.” Also attributed to Benen are the evangelization of Clare and Kerry and part of Connaught, the first pastorate at Drumlease Church in Kilmore diocese, and, after Patrick’s death, the bishopric of the church in Ireland.

Bennett, Dennis (1917-1991) — Charismatic

On 3 April 1960 the Holy Spirit fell on St. Mark’s Episcopal Church in Van Nuys, California (United States), changing forever the dynamics of twentieth-century mainstream Christianity. When compared with accounts of the events at the Azusa Street meetings earlier in the century, the account told by Bennett in Nine O’Clock in the Morning appears small and insignificant. But it was a pivotal event in the Pentecostal/Charismatic movement, and Bennett became a significant leader.

Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1151) — Holiness

A key figure in the Cistercian movement, which sought to bring reform to the monastic system, French-born Bernard was the most influential figure of his age. His motto — “To Know Jesus and Jesus Crucified” — has been adopted by Christians throughout the ages, and his outstanding life, hymns, and practical mystical piety have been appreciated by Christians worldwide. In Twelve Steps to Humility he outlined a way to gain harmony with God, and in On Loving God he gave classic expression to the mystic contemplation of Christ.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich (1906-1945) — Holiness

See Chapter 3.

Boniface (680-754) — Evangelical

“Apostle to Germany” is the title given to Boniface, a native of Crediton, Devonshire (England), who continued the work of his predecessor, Willibrord. Great miracles in overcoming animistic religions accompanied his evangelizing efforts as he destroyed idols, baptized converts, and established churches and monasteries. After being consecrated bishop at age forty-two, Boniface continued to evangelize, but he also worked with civil powers to bring reform to the whole Frankish (German) church. (He is also known by another name, which can be spelled three ways: Wynfrith, Wyfrid, or Win-frith.)

Booth, Catherine Mumford (1829-1890), and William (1829-1912) — Social Justice

Co-founders of The Salvation Army, the Booths married in 1855, left the Methodist New Connection denomination (where William was a minister) five years later, and started a philanthropic and evangelistic mission in the East End (Whitechapel district) of London in 1865. Basic to their ministry was first meeting physical needs through a network of social relief and rehabilitation agencies and then filling spiritual voids through gospel preaching and lively worship. They named the organization The Salvation Army in 1878. Both William and Catherine were effective preachers, and William served as the Army’s general.

Bridget (or Birgitta) of Sweden (c. 1303-1373) — Charismatic

Wife at fourteen, mother of eight, lady-in-waiting to the Swedish queen, visionary, prophetess, founder of the Brigittines — all these roles testify to Bridget’s personal strength and spiritual power. Not involved in monastic life until her husband, Ulf, died at the Cistercian monastery in Alvastra, Bridget stayed on at the monastery four more years. During this time her visions and revelations became so insistent that she asked for help in discerning if they were from God. Assured of their authenticity, she became famous when her recorded revelations and prophecies came true.

Brother Lawrence (or Nicholas Herman) (1611-1691) — Contemplative

Living most of the seventeenth century — “the century of genius” — he wrote The Practice of the Presence of God. This “loving gaze upon God” is powerfully crystallized in his comment, “The time of business does not with me differ from the time of prayer; and in the noise and clatter of my kitchen, … I possess God in as great tranquility as if I were at the blessed sacrament.” Working as a cook in his Discalced (“barefooted”) Carmelite community was a mid-life career change for Lawrence; earlier he had served in the French army and civil service.

Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life (1.4th and 15th centuries) — Contemplative

Launched in the eastern Netherlands during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by Dutch scholar Gerard Groote, this movement spread further and had more influence than any other of the time. The communities that were established lived a practical piety centered around Groote’s devotio moderna (“modern devotion”) — inner spirituality and charitable service. Their work included copying books, distributing religious literature, and providing pastoral care for schoolboys. Reformer Martin Luther and scholar Desiderius Erasmus received spiritual direction from community members. The most influential writing to come out of the community was The Imitation of Christ.

Caedmon (658-680) — Incarnational

Everything we know about Caedmon is recorded in the English historian Bede’s Ecclesiastical History. From it we learn that he was an illiterate Anglo-Saxon herdsman from Whitby who had a vision in which he was commanded to write verse. The next day, remembering that he had recited verses in the vision, he repeated them and added others. This led to a job at the local abbey, where he continued to put biblical stories and events into poetic form. Though considered the first Old English Christian poet, only his poem on creation, “Caedmon’s Hymn,” survives.

Caesarius of Aries (?-543) — Holiness

Twenty years old when he entered the monastery of Lérins, Caesarius devoted himself to bringing “holy habits” into his own life and the lives of those he served. When ordained as a deacon, he was transferred to a nearby monastery that had a very relaxed discipline. After putting in place a Rule that made the monastery a model of piety and order, he drew up a comparable Rule for women. When appointed bishop of Arles (France), Caesarius imposed his two Rules on all the religious houses under his jurisdiction. Later a metropolitan, he presided over several synods, energetically opposing semi-Pelagianism at Orange in 529.

Calvin, John (1509-1564) — Evangelical

Educated in theology and law in his native France, reformer Calvin experienced a “sudden conversion” sometime between 1532 and 1534. With his faith taking first place in his life, he quit his job and moved to Basel (Switzerland), where he wrote the first draft of Institutes of the Christian Religion. Originally written to defend slandered believers, Institutes was the most ordered, systematic presentation of Christian life and doctrine that the Protestant Reformation produced. Calvin became one of that movement’s key figures, spending most of his time in Geneva, where he developed the “presbyterian” model of church polity that “reformed” churches still use today. This model also influenced many social institutions established in the sixteenth century, along with later representative democracies. Congregationalist, United Church of Christ, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches trace their beginnings to Calvin.

Carey, William (1761-1834) — Evangelical

The “Father of Protestant Missions” was also botanist, linguist, and pioneer missionary to India. Carey’s passion to take the gospel to the whole world, expressed in sermons and writings, led to the formation of an English Baptist missionary effort in 1792. In less than a year he fulfilled his lifelong call and left Leicester for Calcutta. The actions and vision of this shoemaker from Northamptonshire sparked the greatest missionary movement the world has ever seen and continue to influence Protestant evangelism efforts today.

Cassian, John (c. 360-c. 435) — Holiness

In Egypt Cassian spent thirteen years studying the ascetic life. From there he went to Constantinople, where he was befriended by John Chrysostom and ordained as a deacon. When Chrysostom was banished, Cassian left too, eventually establishing a monastery” and convent in Marseilles (France). Of his writings — all of which have been preserved — The Institutes and The Collations (or Conferences) have been the most influential. Eastern monastic patterns became familiar to the Western Church through The Collations.

Catherine of Genoa (1447-1510) — Social Justice

Well-educated, Catherine married at age sixteen and in her mid-twenties had a profound conversion experience. Simultaneously, her husband, Guiliano, suffered financial reverses that brought about his transformation. Together they moved into a humble section of the city and devoted the rest of their lives to caring for the orphaned, the sick, and the dying. She became director of a hospital, and her influence spread far and wide. From Catherine’s most famous book — Spiritual Dialogues — we learn about the power behind her life of service, prayer, and fasting.

Catherine of Siena (c. 1347-1380) — Contemplative

Choosing to become a Dominican lay sister at sixteen, Catherine spent her early years in the solitude of her home. Embarking later on a more public life, she worked for ecclesiastical reform; cared for the poor, sick, and imprisoned; and served as an ambassador to popes and other leaders, working for reconciliation. All these efforts were undergirded by times of solitude and contemplation. The Dialogue is the spiritual testament of Catherine, the best-known Italian mystic of her time.

Chad (or Ceadda)(?-672 )— Social Justice

One of the youths trained by Aidan of Lindisfarne to continue his work of helping children and slaves and purchasing the freedom of slaves, Chad (with his brother Cedd) served well. Bede, the English historian, reported that “he was one of Aidan’s disciples and tried to instruct his hearers by acting and behaving after the example of his master [Jesus].” He is also credited with bringing the gospel to the kingdom of Mercia (central England) and with establishing over thirty churches.

Charismatic Renewal (20th century to the present) — Charismatic

When the early-twentieth-century Pentecostal movement failed to penetrate mainstream Christianity, a new work of the Holy Spirit arose in the late 50s and early 60s. This movement spread the news that life in the Spirit is meant for all Christians of all times. Two special emphases of the movement were meaningful worship and exercising the gifts of the Holy Spirit. A list of a few of its leaders reflects the diversity of the movement: Dennis Bennett (Episcopalian), Francis MacNutt (Roman Catholic), Jane Hansen (Christian Missionary Alliance), Jamie Buckingham (Southern Baptist), Catherine Marshall (Presbyterian), C. Peter Wagner (Conservative Congregational), Cindy Jacobs (Baptist), Reinhard Bonnke (German Pentecostal), Oral Roberts (United Methodist).

Chaucer, Geoffrey (c. 1340-1400) — Incarnational

Chaucer is not remembered for his service in the English army, court, and civil service, but rather as the author of the classic Canterbury Tales. The prologue to the Tales describes thirty-one pilgrims who are on their way from London to Canterbury to visit the shrine of Thomas à Becket; the tales are told by the travelers as they try to amuse themselves during the pilgrimage. All but one of the twenty-four Canterbury Tales are set in verse, and with the prologue they give us a wonderful picture of fourteenth-century English life. They also contributed to the call for reformation of the Church in England but failed to give a clear glimpse of what some believe was Chaucer’s own ambiguous, skeptical faith.

Cho, David Yonggi (1936-)—Charismatic

Converted from Buddhism as a young man, Cho, pastor of the Yoido Full Gospel Church in Seoul, knows the full import of the Great Commission and relies on prayer, home cell groups, and lay ministers to carry it out. All members undergird with prayer the outreach of lay ministers who lead home cell groups organized by geographic area. In the power of the Holy Spirit, neighbor takes the gospel to neighbor. This winning combination has not only helped give birth to the dynamic Korean prayer movement, but has grown the largest single Christian fellowship in the world.

Chrysologus, Peter (c. 400-c. 450) — Evangelical

Peter was known for his short sermons — he was afraid of losing the congregation’s attention — many of which are still extant. Very articulate, he earned the name Chrysologus (“golden-worded”), and he preached with such vehemence that he occasionally lost his breath from excitement. Though born in Imola, a town in eastern Emilia (northern Italy), Peter spent his adult years as bishop in Ravenna (also northern Italy).

Chrysostom, John (c. 347-407) — Evangelical

Regarded by the Protestant reformers as a church father second only to Augustine, Chrysostom (“golden-tongued”) studied logic, philosophy, and rhetoric, hoping to become a lawyer. This training stood him in good stead when, after his ordination by the bishop of Antioch (Syria) in 386, he was instructed to engage in preaching only. (He had damaged his health by following a severe Syrian monastic rule for approximately ten years.) A popular and gifted preacher, Chrysostom combined sound biblical exposition with practical application. Opposed to the allegorical method of interpreting Scripture, he sought the exact, literal meaning of each verse after carefully examining the Greek text, a method that the reformers revived eleven hundred years later.

Cistercians (12th century to the present) — Holiness

With the first community started by Robert of Molesme and a small band of monks in 1098 at ***Cîteaux (in Latin Cistercium, hence Cistercian), they dominated Western monastic life during the twelfth century. Following the Rule of Benedict to the letter, members cultivated a strenuous self-denying life that contained elements — a rigorous moral code combined with withdrawal to wild, uninhabited areas — of eremitism (living as hermits). Both monasteries and nunneries sprang up — though the women residents had no official standing — and were deeply involved in the reformation of monastic life. The Cistercians’ most famous member, Bernard, was part of the Cîteaux community before he founded the monastery at Clairvaux.

Clare of Assisi (c. 1193-1253) — Contemplative

After hearing Francis of Assisi’s message of peace and penance, Clare — thirteen years his junior — left home and joined the Franciscans. Francis and the friars escorted the nineteen-year-old Clare to a Benedictine monastery, where she was welcomed by the nuns. As other women joined her, they eventually moved into San Damiano, the first church Francis had restored. There for the rest of her life Clare gave attention to the interior life of prayer and devotion. A brief biography and writings are available in Francis and Clare: The Complete Works.

Classical Movement (17th-18th centuries) — Incarnational

The opposite of romanticism, classicism emphasizes order, balance, and simplicity. These elements are expressed in, for example, reason and analysis; the true, the good, and the beautiful; conformity to society; and compliance with musical composition rules. The first “classicists” were the ancient Greeks (400s-300s B.C.), followed by the Romans (80 B.C.-A.D. 14), and then by the Western Europeans. Mathematician Blaise Pascal, musician Johann Sebastian Bach, and writer Samuel Johnson are good examples of classicists from different disciplines.

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772-1834) — Incarnational

An English poet, Coleridge was a student at Cambridge twice, though he never earned a degree. His poetic career started when he met William Wordsworth. That association resulted in a collaborative publication, Lyrical Ballads. Coleridge’s most significant contribution to the work was “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.” A supernatural, eerie ballad, the piece ends on an ecological note: the ancient mariner’s destiny is to teach reverence for all of God’s creation. Active in philosophical and religious reflection, Coleridge was attracted to Unitarism and German mystical pantheism but returned to the faith of his birth, Christianity, in his latter years.

Columba (or Columban) (521-597) — Evangelical

Of noble blood, Columba spent his first forty-two years in his Irish homeland, serving the cause of Christ. Because of a controversy surrounding a manuscript of the Gospels he had copied without permission and an ensuing battle in which three thousand men were killed, he went into self-imposed exile on the small island of Iona off the western coast of Scotland in 563. There he set up an outpost that became a beehive of missionary activity. When he secured the independence of the Scots from the Picts, it opened the door for monks from Iona to penetrate all of Scotland and northern England with the gospel. In addition, Columba revived learning and introduced a written Gaelic language, which provided the base for Celtic literature.

Constantine (or Cyril) (826-869) and Methodius (c. 815-884) — Evangelical

Missionaries to both southern Russia and the region around the Danube River (Moravia), Constantine and Methodius became known as “apostles to the Slavs.” Both were scholars and theologians in their own right; Constantine translated the Bible into Slavic after inventing an alphabet, and they introduced a Slavic liturgy. These efforts met strong opposition from German Catholic missionaries in Moravia and were eventually banned by Rome. But when Moravian Christianity spread northward, Constantine and Methodius’s disciples ***carried with them copies of the Slavic Scriptures and liturgy.

Copernicus, Nicolas (1473-1543) — Incarnational

Europeans in the sixteenth century accepted the Ptolemaic explanation that all heavenly bodies revolved around the earth, making it the center of the universe. Copernicus, a canon at the Frauenberg Cathedral and an astronomer educated at the University of Cracow (Poland), based his conclusion that the planets revolved around the sun not on observation, but on mathematical calculations. The theory, which was later validated and corrected by other scientists (Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton), forms the foundation of modern astronomy.

Corbinian (670-725) — Holiness

Several miracles and good spiritual advice made Corbinian famous in Châtres, near Melun (France) — so much so that people who wanted a more rigorous spiritual life attached themselves to him. He let several people stay, and they formed themselves into a community under his discipline. Already a bishop and wanting relief from supervising the group, he asked permission to again live in obscurity. Instead, he was sent to Bavaria to evangelize. The long years of spiritual discipline and holy living bore fruit as he took the gospel to Bavaria and founded a monastery at Obermais.

Cuthbert (634-687) — Contemplative

As a shepherd Cuthbert had ample time to practice solitude, but at fifteen he had a religious experience that changed his life’s direction. After that experience he adopted the religious life, serving at various times as a prior, missionary, bishop of Hexham (England), and bishop of Lindisfame. Following in the steps of Aidan, he preached, taught, gave money to the poor, and administered the diocese with compassion and talent. But at the heart of his long ministry were solitude and prayer.

Cyprian of Carthage (c. 200-258) — Holiness

The first martyr-bishop of the North African churches, Cyprian fought for the purity of the Church and was known for his strong position on church order and discipline. A careful student of the presbyter Tertullian, he became a bishop at forty-eight and was a significant figure in the controversies surrounding readmission of the “lapsed” to church fellowship and rebaptism. His view that the unity and holiness of the Church depended upon the bishops led directly to group oversight of churches by bishops. And rebaptism, which Cyprian opposed, prevailed when Augustine supported it.

Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) — Incarnational

Hailed as the greatest Italian poet, prose writer, moral philosopher, and political thinker ever, Dante is remembered by most for his epic poem The Divine Comedy. A theological, moral, and political allegory, the poem was written in the common language of Florence and laid the foundation for a standardized Italian language. Less well known is his work De Monarchia (On Monarchy), in which he argues for a one-world government and the separation of church and state.

Day, Dorothy (1897-1980) — Social Justice

See Chapter 5.

Deacons (1st century to the present) — Social Justice

In Acts 6:1b Luke reports that “the Hellenists complained against the Hebrews because their widows were being neglected in the daily distribution of food.” This is the first reported instance where the early Christian Church had to deal with injustice. The problem was solved rather simply: seven Greeks (Hellenists) were selected to oversee the allocation of food. With this solution the Church took a proactive stance toward treating everyone equally and defined (transliterated “deacon”; sometimes translated “minister”): one who serves others without showing preference.

Desert Fathers and Mothers (4th century) — Contemplative

This movement cannot be traced to one particular person, though Antony of Egypt was its most famous leader. At the beginning of the fourth century leaders and contemplative communities started settling in the desert — first in the desert of Nitria (southwest of Alexandria and the Nile Delta) and then in the desert of Scete and the area known as “the Cells.” By the middle of the fourth century Antony’s followers and thousands of other ascetics were devoting themselves to prayer and following Christ while living in the desert.

Doherty, Catherine de Hueck (1900-) — Contemplative

Foundress of Madonna House Apostolate in rural Combermere, Ontario (Canada), Catherine de Hueck Doherty is known best for the book Poustinia, which makes Russian Christian spirituality accessible to the West. She writes, “One is forever immersed in the silence of God, forever listening to the word of God, forever repeating it to others in word and deed. … It is through this inner, total identification with humanity and with Christ that every Christian should be living in a state of contemplation.”

Dominic (c. 1170-1221) — Evangelical

When Dominic accompanied Bishop Diego to Denmark, they came into contact with the Albigensians, whose leaders were well educated, versed in Scripture, and persuasive at preaching, but who lived in poverty. This so profoundly affected the noble-born Spaniard that, to better evangelize, he adopted a simple lifestyle and lived among the people. Like many other leaders of the time, he soon attracted others who wanted to help but who also needed discipline and unity. In 1216 Dominic got permission to start the Order of Friars Preachers (Dominicans).

Dominicans (13th century to the present) — Evangelical

The fratres predicatores (“preaching brothers”) are dedicated to world evangelization and the cure of souls. Founded in the thirteenth century by Dominic and named the Order of Friars Preachers, the brothers adopted mendicancy (begging) and corporate poverty so that they could preach more effectively among the growing population of urban poor. This evangelistic emphasis naturally led the Dominicans to take an active part in the conversion of South and Central America. The order counts German theologian Albertus Magnus and his student, French philosopher Thomas Aquinas, among its members.

Domtilla, Flavia (?-c. 100) — Incarnational

Domtilla married the first cousin of the Roman Emperor Domitian, Titus Flavius Clemens, who was put to death by Domitian in 95. We do not know if Titus was a Christian, but Domtilla (who was banished to the island of Pandateria after Flavius’s death) was and allowed her land to be used as a burial place for Christians.

Dostoyevsky, Fyodor (1821-1881) — Incarnational

Early in life Dostoyevsky was interested in literature. After serving in the Russian Engineering Corps, he resigned to devote himself to writing. But his plans were cut short when he was imprisoned in Siberia for four years for reading the works of a Utopian socialist. Allowed to read the one book that had significantly influenced his early education — the Bible — he emerged from prison a Christian and a member of the Russian Orthodox Church. His first novel. Poor Folk, published prior to imprisonment, had been a tremendous success, but it is his last novel, The Brothers Karamazov, that most Westerners are familiar with. Concerned with the justice of God, The Brothers Karamazov witnesses to Dostoyevsky’s incarnational life.

du Plessis, David (1905-1987) — Charismatic

South African David du Plessis, whom Time magazine called “one of the Christian giants of our age,” was one of the best-known leaders in the twentieth-century Pentecostal movement. Ordained by the Assemblies of God, in the World Council of Churches he worked for unity between Christians (the first Pentecostal to do so), and he attended the third session of the Second Vatican Council as an observer in 1963. His persistent attempts to advance unity truly made him a “world Christian.”

Eastern Orthodox Iconography (4th century to the present) — Incarnational

An icon is a pictorial representation. In Eastern churches icons consist of images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, angels, leaders, and saints painted on a flat surface, usually wood or ivory, sometimes small enough to be carried in processions. After the Edict of Milan in 313 allowed Christians to worship legally, they could acquire land and build places of worship without fear of confiscation. In the basilicas various pictures — frescoes, mosaics, and icons — became integral to the worship experience. The pictures are full of symbolism, and historian Williston Walker states that the veneration of icons is seen as “an affirmation of the Chalcedonian doctrine of the full and distinct human nature of Christ.”

Eliot, T. S. (1888-1965) — Incarnational

American-born poet Eliot’s faith journey followed a roundabout path. He was brought up Unitarian but went through an agnostic period, which is reflected in his early poetry. His first poem of note, “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,” utilized a style that became a landmark in modern poetry. But it was not until Eliot became a British citizen and was confirmed in the Church of England that his poetry took on serious religious themes. His last major poem, entitled Four Quartets, meditates on the relationship between time and eternity. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948.

Ephraem (or Ephraim) the Syrian (c. 306-c. 373) — Charismatic

Ephraem is recognized in both Western and Eastern Christianity as a deacon who could not only write and do biblical exegesis but could compose hymns. Early in his Nisibis (Turkey) ministry, when he recognized the value of including music in worship services, he set about writing hymns that were theologically sound. These hymns, which he introduced through a women’s choir in his church, supplanted the Gnostic songs (syncretizing pagan philosophy and astrology with Christianity) that had been introduced by a previous leader. Ephraem wrote most of his hymns at Edessa, his home after the Persians overran Nisibis.

Euthymius the Great (c. 378-473) — Contemplative

Sixty-eight of Euthymius’s ninety-five years were spent in the desert practicing solitude. In the early years, after being ordained as a priest in Melitene (Armenia), he spent whole nights in prayer on a mountain close to one of the monasteries he supervised, St. Polyeuctus. Then he went to a monastery near Jerusalem, where he made and sold baskets to support himself and the poor. In his last years he lived near Jericho, where he spent weekdays in prayer and met on weekends with those seeking spiritual advice. He was known for performing miracles, converting Arabs, and helping the needy.

Fénelon, François (1651-1715) — Contemplative

Fénelon followed the path trod by many Frenchmen who respond to their religious impulses: education and ordination as a priest. But his life took an unusual turn when in 1688 he met and became acquainted with mystic Madame Guyon. At first he approved and defended the quietism she espoused — a brand of mysticism asserting that people could attain perfection through contemplation of God — but later he signed the Thirty-Four Articles of Issy, which condemned that movement. After that controversy he wrote articles that defended mysticism — articles officially condemned by the Church. In spite of these difficulties, his Christian Perfection, which illumines his mastery of the spiritual life, has become a devotional classic. (His full name was Franç de Salignac de la Mothe Féon!)

Finney, Charles (1792-1875) — Evangelical

Trained as a lawyer, Finney was converted at twenty-nine and became a full-time Presbyterian evangelist, working as a missionary in upstate New York under the auspices of the Female Missionary Society of the Western District. These “western revivals,” which used “new measures” — the “anxious seat,” protracted meetings, and women pray-ers at meetings — brought Finney national fame. When several evangelical leaders disapproved of his methods, they met with him, discussing their concerns, and Finney emerged as the new leader and “father” of evangelical revivalism. Tuberculosis forced him to curtail his travels in 1832. Thereafter he served as a pastor, taught at Oberlin Collegiate Institute in Ohio (now Oberlin College), and in 1851 became Oberlin’s president.

Flavian (c. 320-404) — Charismatic

From history we see that Flavian was embroiled in several controversies from the date of his selection as presider at the Council of Constantinople to the end of his tenure as bishop of Antioch (Syria). But these controversies passed, as all do. What lasted was his introduction of singing the psalms antiphonally by church choirs. This responsive style of singing has enhanced the worship of the Church through the ages.

Fox, George (1624-1691) — Charismatic

It took three years for George Fox to find an answer to his spiritual quest: “There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can speak to thy condition.” This prompted him to abandon the formalities of the Anglican Church and actively share his newfound faith through preaching. Though not formally educated, he traveled not only in England but also in Holland, North America, the West Indies, and elsewhere, establishing congregations centered around Christ as living Teacher, the priesthood of believers, the empowering word of the Holy Spirit, and equality of all. The “Quaker” (a judge’s jibe aimed at Fox, who had urged the bench to “tremble at the word of the Lord”) worship services he introduced were “unprogrammed”; that is, they followed no formal order and often included long periods of silence. Fox was known for his charismatic preaching and miracle-working power. Besides the Society of Friends, he left Christendom The Journal of George Fox, a record of his life and magnetic personality.

Francis of ssisi (1182-1226) — Charismatic

Sec Chapter 4.

Franciscans (13th century to the present) — Charismatic

The Order of Friars Minor (fratres minores, “little brothers”) owes its existence to Francis of Assisi, who imparted not only his name but also his character to the order. Living under the power of the Spirit, caring for outcasts, praying, and practicing poverty, chastity, and obedience are central to both the Franciscans and their “second order,” the Poor Clares (or Poor Ladies). Historians believe that Francis did not intend to start an order, but he was so winsome that people were attracted to him and his way of life. The order prepared its final Rule in 1223. Along with the Dominicans, the Franciscans are the best-known of the mendicant (begging) orders.

Fry, Elizabeth (1780-1845) — Social Justice

Of devout Quaker stock from Norwich (England), Elizabeth Fry married Joseph John Gurney at twenty and became a minister of the Society of Friends at thirty-one. Receiving strong support from her husband and family of eleven, Elizabeth ministered to the needy and established an institution to train nurses: the “Nursing Sisters of Devonshire Square.” But she is best remembered for working to improve the lives of female inmates at Newgate Prison in London. She also traveled to northern England, Scotland, France, and northern Europe, working for prison reform; and her influence reached into Italy, Denmark, and Russia.

Germanus (or Germain) (c. 496-576) — Social Justice

First as abbot of St. Symphorian and then as bishop of Paris, Germanus was recognized for his work in the Frankish (German) church at large, but that work never diverted him from his concern for the poor. He was known for entertaining beggars at his own table and giving generously to benevolent causes. This interest was complemented by his austere life, which freed him to found numerous religious houses and participate in councils.

Gildas the Wise (?-c. 570) — Holiness

“The miseries, the errors and the ruin of Britain” constantly grieved Gildas, a man animated by a zeal for holy living and the spiritual life. Not much is known about his early years other than what we learn from his book De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, which indicts laypeople and clergy for their immoral lives. We do know that the last years of his life were spent in Brittany, where he trained disciples.

Gottschalk (c. 803-869) — Incarnational

Most often remembered for adopting and preaching fourth-century theologian Augustine’s double predestination teaching, the Saxon Gottschalk was condemned and imprisoned. But he also wrote poetry that historian Allen Cabaniss considers “some of the most beautiful poems of the Carolingian (French dynasty) renaissance.” His writing prepared the way for later medieval poetry.

Graham, Billy (1918-) — Evangelical

See Chapter 6.

Great Awakenings (18th-19th centuries) — Evangelical

Englishmen George Whitfield and brothers Charles and John Wesley are the most recognized leaders of what is called the Evangelical Revival in England and the First Great Awakening in America — a movement that lasted approximately fifty years. First signs of an awakening appeared around 1714 in Scotland and spread southward, transforming English society and crossing oceans to all English-speaking countries. In America historian Williston Walker calls it “the most far-reaching and transforming movement in … eighteenth-century religious life.” “Conversion” or regeneration became the criterion for becoming a member of the church, not infant baptism and confirmation.

The Second Great Awakening, beginning in the early 1790s, cropped up on both sides of the Atlantic off and on into the mid to late 1800s. Charles Finney evangelized the northern U.S. frontier during this awakening, becoming a leading figure in America in the early part of the nineteenth century. This second awakening prompted the formation of the first American Bible and tract and missionary societies. Among the missionaries sent by these societies were Adoniram Judson and Luther Rice, who served in India. In the 1870s American evangelist Dwight L. Moody played a significant role in England, influencing the birth of the Keswick Movement. The lay Haldane brothers, Robert and James Alexander, and Thomas Chalmers led the effort in Scotland. On the Continent the awakening took several forms: evangelism and pietism in Germany, creativity in Denmark, pietism in Norway, and evangelism in the Reformed churches of Switzerland, France, and the Netherlands. And in all countries touched by the awakening, the formation of missionary societies was stimulated.

Gregorian Liturgical Movement (7th century to the present) — Charismatic

This movement owes its life to Pope Gregory the Great, who (along with Pope Celestine I and Pope Sixtus III) organized and codified Roman liturgy and its music. Casting the liturgy in a three-year cycle and incorporating plainsong (also known as Gregorian chant, after Gregory) into the liturgy, this movement — in conjunction with using Latin as the primary ecclesial language — gave the Western Church a unified body of rites. This allowed the liturgy to cross all political and ethnic lines.

Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 330-389) — Holiness

Gregory, along with brothers Gregory of Nyssa and fellow student Basil (“the three Cappadocian fathers”), worked tirelessly for the doctrinal purity of the Church by defending the Nicene Council’s view of the Trinity at the Council of Constantinople (381). Twice others tried to get him to accept a public office, and twice he refused in favor of leading a contemplative life, though that life was interrupted from time to time by church ministry. Gregory’s father (also named Gregory) was bishop of Nazianzus, and his mother, Nonna (or Emmelia), greatly influenced his spiritual life.

Gregory of Nyssa (330-c. 395) — Contemplative

Enlisted by Gregory of Nazianzus to help oppose Arianism, he was also one of “the three Cappadocian fathers.” Well equipped by a classical education, Gregory was a teacher of rhetoric when his brother Basil forced the bishopric of Nyssa upon him. There, in spite of huge responsibilities, he maintained a life of communion with God. Also a writer (and the brother of Macrina), he produced numerous treatises on theological subjects, ascetic piety, and prayer. Gregory’s mystical writings especially his Life of Moses were seminal for the subsequent Christian mystical tradition.

Gregory Palamas (c. 1296-1359) — Contemplative

Refining the teachings of Simeon the New Theologian, Gregory vigorously defined and defended the practice of hesychasm in the Eastern Church. Gregory based his argument that the whole body should be involved in prayer in a good material world blessed by God. (At that time the view that the physical world was evil dominated Christian teachings.) While reciting the “Jesus Prayer,” Orthodox historian Timothy Ware says hesychasts carefully regulate their breathing and sit with “head bowed, chin resting on chest, eyes fixed on the place of the heart.” For his teachings Gregory was excommunicated. Though he was later vindicated, he died before hesychasm became an accepted practice.

Gregory Thaumaturgus (c. 213-c. 270) — Charismatic

As a member of a wealthy family in Pontus (Turkey), Gregory Thaumaturgus (“miracle-worker”) was converted under the teaching of Origen and became Origen’s disciple. Returning from Palestine to Pontus and becoming bishop, he utilized his aristocratic heritage and position to substitute Christian festivals for pagan ones and to convert people en masse. But at the heart of Thaumaturgus’s ministry were miracles — healings, stopping the flow of a river, and visions. One legend reports that only seventeen people in Pontus remained unconverted at his death.

Gregory the Great (c. 540-604) — Charismatic

“Father of the medieval papacy,” Gregory I’s list of achievements before and after becoming pope is lengthy. Gregory mastered legal studies, founded monasteries, contributed time and money to good works, consolidated power in Rome, regulated and reformed bishoprics, codified the liturgy, dispatched missionaries to England, and more. One of his most influential works, Pastoral Rule, set the standard for understanding the role of bishops in the Western Church. And his namesake, the Gregorian chant, has survived the centuries and is now being used in churches of numerous traditions worldwide.

Gualbert, John (?-1073) — Social Justice

When his brother was murdered, John vowed revenge; but he found that he could not kill the murderer when they met in a narrow passage. John repented of his hate and embraced his enemy, and they parted peacefully. This event changed his life, and he gave the rest of his days to starting monasteries and meeting the needs of the poor. All of his monasteries were modest; all the poor who approached him received help; all instances of simony (the buying or selling of church offices) in his area were stopped to the best of his ability.

Guyon, Madame (Jeanne Marie Bouvier) (1648-1717) — Contemplative

Madame Guyon has had an extensive influence through her writings, the most important of which include the voluminous Autobiography of Madame Guyon, Experiencing the Depths of Jesus Christ, and Union with God. Embroiled in a seventeenth-century controversy over quietism, which she practiced, she was censored and imprisoned, but her message continued to spread as leaders as diverse as evangelist John Wesley, hymn writer and poet William Cowper, and church leader and writer Watchman Nee translated her works and recommended them to their followers. An accomplished poet, she wrote these words from prison:

Strong are the walls around me

   That hold me all the day;

But they who thus have bound me

   Cannot keep God away,

My very dungeon walls are dear

   Because the God I love is here.

Hammarskjöld, Dag (1905-1961) — Incarnational

See Chapter 7.

Handel, George Frideric (1685-1759) — Incarnational

With Johann Sebastian Bach and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Handel dominated the music produced in the so-called classical period. He gained his fame initially for his vocal works. Born in Germany, Handel received his musical training there and in Italy. In 1712 he emigrated to England, where there was a growing taste for opera. But it was the oratorio — “sacred” opera performed without costumes and sometimes without scenery — that built his popularity. Handel’s most famous oratorio is The Messiah, a work that combines his mastery of the English choral tradition with his gift for the dramatic.

Helena (or Helen) (c. 248-c. 327) — Social Justice

Thought to be the daughter of an innkeeper, Helena was the mother of Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, who issued the Edict of Milan in 313 with co-emperor Licinius. Formerly deposed by Emperor Constantius, she had been restored to honor at sixty-three when Constantine came to power, and she became a Christian at the same time as her son. Using her influence, Helena gave liberally to the poor and established many basilicas (including the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and Eleona on the Mount of Olives).

Hermas (2nd century) — Holiness

Hermas’s only surviving work is The Shepherd, a description of five visions. With repentance followed by forgiveness as a major theme, The Shepherd gives us insight into second-century Christian life and morality. Simultaneously, it reveals that Hermas was a former slave who married, started a business, almost lost everything, saw his children “backslide,” and repented to reunite his family. Some early church leaders considered The Shepherd worthy of becoming part of the New Testament; others viewed it as only a tool to help Christians deepen their lives in holiness and virtue. External evidence suggests that The Shepherd was respected and read widely in the early Christian Church.

Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) — Charismatic

Hildegard’s German parents sent her to a Benedictine convent at a young age to be educated. Entering the order at fifteen, at thirty-two she was persuaded to write down the visions of God that she had experienced from the age of three on. These she recorded in Scivias, a classic of medieval mysticism, and it and her letters made her famous. Widely regarded as a prophetess, Hildegard also established a Benedictine convent at Rupertsberg near Bingen and wrote both words and music to numerous hymns, canticles, and anthems.

Holiness Movement (18th century to the present) — Holiness

When Oxford-educated Anglicans Charles and John Wesley became involved in the Evangelical Revival in England and First Great Awakening in America, they were concerned only to “reform the nation,” not to start a new denomination. But start one they did — and then some. Out of their itinerant ministries and emphasis on “holy living” came a “method” — societies, class meetings, and bands that emphasized mutual accountability — and Methodism was born. Other groups that claim the holiness heritage include Free Methodist, Wesleyan Methodist, Church of God (Anderson, Indiana), Church of the Nazarene, Methodist Episcopal Church, and the Salvation Army.

Hsi, Pastor (1810-1896) — Charismatic

Wanting to enter a literary contest sponsored by a Methodist minister, forty-nine-year-old Hsi read the required Gospel of Matthew and was converted to Christ. Formerly a Confucian scholar, he worked with the China Inland Mission and became a spiritual giant, his influence spreading far beyond his native province of Shanxi. His simple faith spoke of a God who became real, a Bible that came alive, promises that came true, and prayers that were effective. A former opium addict, he helped deliver other addicts from their habit at rehabilitation centers and prayed for the deliverance of people possessed by demons. In the power of the Holy Spirit he became one of China’s greatest preachers.

Hunna (or Huva) (?-c. 679) — Incarnational

Little is known of the noble-born Hunna’s background other than that she was from the French province of Alsace and married a nobleman, Huno, who was from the village of Hunnaweyer in the diocese of Strasbourg (France). Her importance stems from her willingness, though she was of noble birth, to do wash for her needy neighbors. This willingness earned her the nickname “the Holy Washer-Woman.” In this menial activity she helped define incarnational living.

Hyde, John (1865-1912) — Contemplative

It seemed that John Hyde was going to follow in his minister father’s footsteps and accept an assignment in Illinois (United States), but instead he went with a group of missionaries to India. Assigned by the Presbyterian Church to the Punjab region, he labored as an itinerant preacher for years — learning several local languages and taking the gospel to remote villages — without seeing many converts. Discouraged, he turned to prayer-vigilant, persistent prayer — which became his greatest work and his greatest legacy. Sometimes spending over forty hours on his knees, he became known as “praying Hyde”; through that ministry of prayer and example, he saw people converted to the way of Christ.

Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35-c. 107) — Evangelical

The only thing we know for certain about Ignatius’s life before he was arrested for his faith during the reign of Trajan is that he was bishop of Antioch (Syria). During the trip to Rome under armed guard, he wrote seven letters — six to churches and one to Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna. From these we learn that he opposed the Ebionite heresy (a teaching that asserted that for salvation believers must keep the Jewish regulations) and Docetism (a teaching that asserted that Christ only appeared to have lived, died, and been resurrected). We can assume that Ignatius, who called himself “the bearer of God,” arrived in Rome and was martyred.

Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) — Holiness

“By the term ‘Spiritual Exercises’ is meant every method of examination of conscience, of meditation, of contemplation, of vocal and mental prayer, and of other spiritual activities.” So starts Ignatius’s Spiritual Exercises, the book that stands at the center of both his life and the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), which he founded. This book has been a powerful tool for devotion in the Roman Catholic Church and beyond. Born of a knightly family, Ignatius served in the Spanish army until he received severe leg wounds and was discharged. During his long recovery, he read Ludolph the Carthusian’s Life of Christ and biographies of other Christians, decided to become a knight for Christ, and with single-minded devotion set his heart to the task.

Isidore the Farmer (1070-1130) — Incarnational

Named after the archbishop of Seville, Isidore was born to poor parents in Madrid and was employed as a farm laborer as soon as he was old enough to work. He married a girl as poor as himself, and they had one son who died young. Isidore was a farmer all of his life, but he served God by going to church early every day, praying while he worked in the fields, visiting churches, and giving generously to the poor. There was no division between sacred and secular in his life.

James the Apostle (1st century) — Holiness

See Chapter 3.

Jerome (or Eusebius Hieronymus) (c. 347-420) — Evangelical

Jerome is remembered by the average person not for his winning personality — he was testy, quarrelsome, and vindictive — but for translating the Bible from the original Hebrew and Greek into Latin. Schooled in grammar, rhetoric, and Latin classical literature at Rome, he went on a twenty-year pilgrimage of the Roman Empire, during which he learned Hebrew. Returning to Rome in about 382, he served as Pope Damascus’s personal secretary. He left when the pope died, eventually settling in a Bethlehem monastery. It was there — during his most productive period — that Jerome finalized the Vulgate Bible, the translation that was used almost exclusively by the Roman Catholic Church until recent times. Though Jerome’s methods of translation set the pattern for those of succeeding eras, the Vulgate received its share of criticism. Since it changed some of the people’s favorite texts, historian Justo L. Gonzalez writes that “many demanded to know who had given Jerome authority to tamper with Scripture.”

Jesus of Nazareth (c. 4 B.C.-C. A.D. 29)

See Chapter 1.

Jewett, Paul (1919-1991) — Social Justice

As professor of systematic theology at Fuller Theological Seminary (United States), Paul Jewett left a legacy of writings and students that exhibit clear, consistent evangelical thinking. This thinking is best represented in his book Man as Male and Female, in which he “sought to gather together in a single essay what has been said by the theologians about Man as male and female, both that which reflects the traditional view and that which seeks to go beyond it. In doing so, I take the position that the ‘woman question’ is a ‘man/woman’ question which has its roots, theologically speaking, in the doctrine of the imago Dei.” He went beyond the emotional arguments and centered on “all the counsel of God,” the Bible, to reach his conclusions. With this book, Jewett established himself as a leading proponent for the equality of women in the Church.

Joan of Arc (1412-1431) — Charismatic

Joan of Arc’s life has been told in numerous books, plays, and movies, and her story continues to fascinate. Born into a devout peasant family, early in life Joan experienced visions and voices that told her to lead the king’s eldest son (the dauphin) and his troops into battle against the British siege at Orleans (France). She kept the revelations to herself initially but then spoke up. After passing rigorous testing by a panel of theologians, she got the dauphin’s consent to accompany him. The Orleans assault was successful, and she stood with the dauphin at his crowning as Charles VII. But the war dragged on, and Joan was captured and sold to the English by their Burgundian allies. In a trial for sorcery that lasted three months, Joan answered the English examiners’ questions but denied the voices when told she faced death by fire — a denial she soon retracted. Burned at the stake as a lapsed heretic, “the Maid of Orleans’” last words were “Jesus, Jesus.”

John Climacus (or John of the Ladder) (579-649) — Contemplative

An Eastern hermit and later abbot of the Monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai, John Climacus wrote The Ladder of Paradise, which has become a spiritual classic. John was a contemporary of Maximus the Confessor, who helped form Eastern Orthodox theology and spirituality. With Maximus he also is considered a spiritual forerunner of Simeon the New Theologian, a leader in the contemplative practice of hesychasm.

John of Damascus (or John Damascene) (c. 675-749) — Incarnational

Succeeding his father as the Christians’ representative in the Muslim caliph’s court, John resigned and entered the monastery of St. Sabas near Jerusalem. From there John wrote theological works, beautiful poetry, and hymns. His greatest work was The Fountain of Knowledge; this document, with his other writings, provided a systematic theology of Eastern Christianity and defended the use of icons in Christian devotion. His writings, which influenced Italian theologian Peter Lombard and French philosopher Thomas Aquinas, endure today.

John of the Cross (1542-1591) — Contemplative

John was a powerful figure in the Carmelite movement of Teresa of Ávila, which was part of the Roman Catholic Reformation, but his most noteworthy contribution is the writing of several of Christianity’s greatest spiritual classics: The Ascent of Mount Carmel, Spiritual Canticle, The Living Flame of Love, and The Dark Night of the Soul. Written in Spanish rather than Latin, all are world literature masterpieces and all are important markers in the history of Spanish spirituality. Particularly in The Dark Night of the Soul, John provided keen insight into human nature and guided readers in the soul’s journey with God:

O guiding light!

O night more lovely than the dawn!

O night that has united

the Lover with His beloved,

transforming the beloved in her Lover.

John the Almsgiver (?-c. 619) — Social Justice

Of a noble and wealthy family, John used his money to help the poor after his wife and children died. After his actions became known, he was appointed patriarch of Alexandria (Egypt) when approximately fifty years old. In that position John did all he could to protect the oppressed: he ordered merchants to use just weights and measures, he forbade all his officers and servants to take presents, he distributed all the money in the church treasury to hospitals and monasteries, he dedicated the revenues of the see to the poor, he gave shelter to refugees, and more.

John the Apostle (1st century) — Contemplative

See Chapter 2.

Johnson, Samuel (1709-1784) — Incarnational

For the last twenty years of his life, Samuel Johnson so dominated the literary life of London that those years were called “the Age of Johnson.” The son of a Litchfield, Staffordshire, bookseller, Johnson attended Pembroke College, Oxford, but dropped out. Moving to London two years later, he started writing essays and poetry and published two short-lived periodicals. His first major work, Dictionary of the English Language, was the best dictionary of its day, and his Prayers and Meditations, published posthumously, reveal a man of humble spirit and continual self-examination. A faithful Anglican, historian P. M. Bechtel calls Johnson “one of England’s most pious writers.”

Jones, E. Stanley (1884-1973) — Holiness

A four-day experience of being “flooded by the Spirit” propelled the Methodist Jones into missionary service in India, but a ruptured appendix and tetanus cut short his appointment. Reappraising his career, he changed direction, focusing instead on serving as an evangelist to Indian intellectuals. The rest of his life he combined “holy living” with moving comfortably among world leaders and working for peace and harmony. Twice he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. He also developed Christian ashrams (centers for meditation and group worship) and wrote With the Christ of the Indian Road, his first and best-known book.

Julian of Norwich (c. 1342-c. 1413) — Contemplative

Julian’s importance rests on a single book, Showings — her mature reflections upon sixteen visions that were given to her on 13 May 1373. This first book written by a woman in the English language contains some of the most passionate love language in all of devotional literature. In her most famous passage she says that God, in tender love, comforts all those trapped in pain and sin by speaking over them, “But all shall be well, and all shall be well, and all manner of thing shall be well.”

Kagawa, Toyohiko (1888-1960) — Social Justice

Born to a single geisha in Kobe (Japan), Kagawa’s childhood was lonely and bitter, and his family disinherited him when he converted from Buddhism to Christianity. But in spite of the hardships, he entered Christian service, becoming an evangelist — he began the Kingdom of God and Million Souls movements (mass evangelism crusades); social reformer — he started labor unions, relief works, and cooperatives; and political activist — he became a leader in the democratic and pacifist movements. Imprisoned three times for his activities, he wrote almost 170 books on religion, sociology, and science.

Kelly, Thomas R. (1893-1941) — Contemplative

Kelly, an extraordinary Quaker philosopher, educator, and speaker, wrote The Eternal Promise, Reality of the Spiritual World, and A Testament of Devotion. He said, “Life from the Center is a life of unhurried peace and power. It is simple. It is serene. It is amazing. It is triumphant. It is radiant. It takes no time, but it occupies all our time.” Born in Ohio (United States) and educated at leading American colleges and universities, he is known for his dogged pursuit of the divine Center. He died prematurely of a heart attack.

Keswick Movement (19th-20th centuries) — Holiness

Operating out of two English centers — Mildmay and Keswick — this movement was a child of the Second Great Awakening and the ministries of the American evangelist Dwight L. Moody and singer/composer Ira Sankey. Moody, at the invitation of Anglican vicar William Pennefather, led the first meeting designed to deepen the spiritual life at Mildmay in 1870 in a hall especially built for the occasion. The Keswick Center was begun in 1875 by T. D. Harford-Battersby, a Church of England clergyman, and was the site of annual meetings that were attended by both Anglicans and Nonconformists (that is, persons who did not conform to the Church of England) into the twentieth century.

King, Martin Luther, Jr. (1929-1968) — Social Justice

When Rosa Parks refused to give up her bus seat to a white man in 1955, her action inspired the African-American population of Montgomery,

Alabama (United States), to boycott city buses. Lasting about a year (until segregation on public transportation was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court), the bus boycott spawned the civil rights movement. Martin Luther King, Jr., became that movement’s most visible leader. A Baptist minister from Atlanta, Georgia, he adopted the nonviolent protest approach used by Mahatma Gandhi in gaining India’s freedom from England and led numerous protests before his assassination.

Kuhlman, Kathryn (c. 1910-1976) — Charismatic

Describing herself as “Missouri” cornbread, Kuhlman experienced a conversion at age fourteen that was as definite as her call to ministry. First speaking before small groups — “Name any town in Idaho, and you’ll discover that one time, years ago Kathryn Kuhlman came through trying to evangelize it” — she later spoke before filled arenas in the United States and beyond. Her ministry also used the media — radio, television, books — to spread her message of faith in God and divine healing. People at her meetings experienced an overpowering sense of the Holy Spirit, and many claimed miraculous healings. Kuhlman’s motivation is best explained in her own words: “The goal of every Christian, every born-again man and woman, should be helping people.”

Laubach, Frank (1884-1970) — Contemplative

See Chapter 2.

Law, William (1686-1761) — Holiness

William Law lost his fellowship at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, along with his right to preach in the Church of England when he followed his conscience and refused to take the oath of allegiance at the enthronement of George I. But his A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life, which spoke to the hearts of evangelist John Wesley, writer Samuel Johnson, and Catholic Cardinal John Henry Newman, has lasted much longer than his sermons. Indeed, it continues to speak today: “Devotion signifies a life given or devoted to God. … The devout [person] … lives … to the sole will of God, … considers God in everything, … serves God in everything, … makes all the parts of common life parts of piety by doing everything in the name of God and under such rules as are conformable to His glory.”

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) — Incarnational

This Italian artist, inventor, and scholar is best known among Christians for his painting The Last Supper. Early on he collaborated with his teacher, Andrea del Verrocchio, on The Baptism of Christ, and on his own he started Adoration of the Three Kings. So when he started The Last Supper in a monastery dining hall about 1495, Christian themes were not new to him. But Leonardo did try a new technique — coating the wall with a self-created compound so that he could revise his work before it dried. It failed. The painting, which created a more centralized and active design than other artists had achieved, and which shows the humanity of Jesus and his disciples, started flaking soon after its completion and is in poor condition today.

Lewi’s, C. S. (1898-1963) — Evangelical

A “happy atheist” at fourteen, “surprised by joy” at thirty, tutor and fellow at Magdalen College, Oxford, Lewis wrote some of the most popular and creative books of the twentieth century. But it is in Mere Christianity, which explains and defends “the belief that has been common to nearly all Christians at all times,” that Lewis shines. Originally four different series of radio talks that were broadcast once a week starting in August 1941 (two months after the nightly German bombing raids on England ended), these writings can be read separately. However, they are best read under the Mere Christianity title, since in that volume Lewis edited and expanded the talks. Besides Lewis’s own writings (and third-party analyses of them), there are numerous biographies and two movies — an English and an American version of Shadowlands — that can help you get acquainted with this twentieth-century giant.

Livingstone, David (1813-1873) — Social Justice

Most of us are acquainted with Henry Morton Stanley’s famous greeting, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume,” and probably know that the Scottish Livingstone “discovered” Victoria Falls in Africa. But few know that as a leader in the eighteenth-century Protestant missionary movement he advocated using indigenous peoples in African evangelism efforts and preached against the white exploitation of blacks. Livingstone’s tombstone at Westminster Abbey bears this epitaph: “For thirty years his life was spent in an unwearied effort to evangelize the native races, to explore the undiscovered secrets, to abolish the desolating slave trade of Central Africa.”

Lutgarde of Aywieres (1182-1246) — Charismatic

A contemporary of Francis of Assisi, Lutgarde was known for her “power of healing,” in which her very touch had the effect of instantly curing those who came to her. She also experienced ecstatic gifts of visions, prophecies, and miracles. The authoritative biography of her life — Vita Lutgardis — is not available in English, but Thomas Merton wrote a sympathetic interpretation of her interior life and mystical experiences, What Are These Wounds? The Life of a Cistercian Mystic.

Luther, Martin (1483-1546) — Evangelical

Luther is most remembered for nailing his ninety-five theses to the Wittenberg Castle church door on 31 October 1517. Though discontentment against extravagant fiscal practices of the Roman Catholic Church had been rumbling through Germany for some time, Luther’s listing of the specific abuses connected with the selling of indulgences (led at that time by Johann Tetzel, who in his fund-raising used the rhyme “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, / The soul from purgatory springs”) launched a revolt, and he became the father of the German Reformation and a key figure in Protestantism. Roland Bainton’s biography Here I Stand gives a clear picture of Luther’s life and times.

Macrina the Younger (c. 330-379) — Contemplative

Macrina, eldest of ten children, counted Basil the Great, Peter of Sebastea, and Gregory of Nyssa among her brothers. Their mother, Nonna, acted as spiritual guide to her husband and the children. After Basil returned from school he secured an estate for his mother and Macrina, and they were joined by other women seeking to live in community. It is said that the contemplative Macrina taught Basil humility and was “father, teacher, guide, mother, giver of good advice” to Peter.

Mason, C. H. (1866-1961) — Charismatic

Expelled by the National Baptist Convention in 1899 because he preached Wesleyan holiness and retained and defended black worship practices, Mason attracted thousands in the early 1900s. After receiving the baptism of the Holy Spirit under William Seymour at the Azusa Street Revival in 1907, he integrated this new understanding into his teaching and practice, becoming the founder of the Church of God in Christ. Under Mason’s powerful spiritual leadership, the Church of God in Christ became the largest Pentecostal denomination in the United States, and, according to Ithiel C. Clemmons, it continues to hold “in tension the dynamics of holiness, spiritual encounter, and a prophetic Christian social consciousness.”

Maximus the Confessor (c. 580-662) — Contemplative

Deeply spiritual, Maximus cultivated a three-step approach that leads toward God and insisted that contemplation and love are inseparable; we become spiritually mature only through love of neighbor (the practical) and love of God (the contemplative). As a theologian Maximus, along with John Climacus, was a forerunner of Simeon the New Theologian, a leader in the theological movement that favored the contemplative practice of hesy-chasm, and he was a vigorous opponent of the Monothelite belief that Christ has only one will — a divine will — and no human will.

McPherson, Aimee Semple (1890-1944) — Charismatic

Converted during the Pentecostal movement in the early 1900s, “Sister Aimee” held a series of revival tours across the United States shortly after World War I. An early pioneer in radio evangelism, she delivered messages emphasizing sanctification (a life set apart to God), divine healing, the baptism of the Holy Spirit (evidenced by speaking in tongues), and Christ’s imminent return. She settled in California in 1922 and preached each week to thousands at her church, the Los Angeles Temple, out of which arose a new denomination in 1927: the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel.

Medericus (or Merry) (?-c. 700) — Holiness

Merry, a monk, became abbot of his monastery in Autun (France) against his will, but that did not keep him from living a virtuous life. He was such a good example that the monks and people who came for spiritual advice started to idolize him. Fearing that he would become vain, Merry resigned and hid in a forest a few miles away. But the people learned where Merry was living, and at about the same time he got sick, so Merry had to return to the monastery where he again helped his brothers live holy lives.

Merton, Thomas (1915-1968) — Contemplative

French-born Trappist monk Thomas Merton was a poet and author of many books, including The Seven Storey Mountain, New Seeds of Contemplation, and Spiritual Direction and Meditation. Merton has been the most influential proponent of traditional monasticism in the twentieth century. “Contemplative prayer is not so much a way to find God,” he wrote, “as a way of resting in him whom we have found, who loves us, who is near to us, who comes to us to draw us to himself.”

Michelangelo (1475-1564) — Incarnational

Italian Renaissance artist and sculptor Michelangelo is best known for his statues David, the Pieta, and Moses, and the creation story fresco on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. One of the most technically gifted artists and intellectuals of the time, Michelangelo produced art that centered around God and humans. By his own testimony, God was his greatest influence and source of ideas. Michelangelo felt that in God-centered art the beauty of the piece is not an end in itself; rather, it is a reflection of spiritual reality, lifting the viewer’s mind beyond the material. (His full name was Michelagniolo di Lodovico Buonarroti-Simonil)

Milton, John (1608-1674) — Incarnational

Milton was one of England’s greatest poets, and his life and works followed the same rhythm. During the first period of his life he became a Puritan and wrote poetry in Latin, Italian, and English. He was a political Independent, serving in the Cromwell government during the second period and writing mostly polemical and scholarly essays. Milton’s last period, beginning in 1660, was his greatest, even though he was blind, he had suffered the death of two wives and two children, and he had lost his government position. During that final period he wrote the epic poems Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, and Samson Agonistes.

Modem Liturgical Renewal (20th century to the present) — Charismatic

By the 1960s a liturgical renaissance — an outgrowth of the ecumenical movement — was underway. Those from free church backgrounds wanted to incorporate liturgical elements such as processions into their services. Those from liturgical churches wanted to add elements such as intimate worship choruses to their liturgies. As a result, interest in the theology and practice of worship mushroomed. Many free churches adopted liturgical elements, a number of denominations revised their liturgies, and a Vatican II document titled The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy hastened liturgical reform in Roman Catholic churches.

Monica (c. 331-c. 387) — Icarnational

Born near Hippo (North Africa), where later her son, Augustine, was bishop, Monica was a Christian with Christian parents. She married a man who received Christ before he died, and she left an indelible mark on everyone her life touched. Augustine wrote of her, “All of them who knew her found in her good reason to praise and honor and love you [God], because on the evidence of the fruit of her holy conversation they could feel your presence in her heart. … [S]he gave to each one of us the care that a mother gives to her son and to each one of us the service which a daughter gives to her father.”

Montanist Movement (2nd-3rd centuries) — Charismatic

Named after its founder Montanus, Montanism arose in about 170 among the Phrygians (residents of the Roman province in Asia Minor), who emphasized Spirit-directed prophetic utterance and prized celibacy. They believed that Montanism was the beginning of a new — or newer — age and restricted the definition of a church to a group of charismatic, “spiritual” persons. Spreading rapidly through Asia Minor, Montanism reached Syria, Antioch, North Africa, and Rome and the West. Though it kept alive the prophetic tradition, it was eventually condemned by a synod because of certain excesses (and also, no doubt, because it was a threat to the church power structure).

Montanus (2nd century) — Charismatic

Seeking to retain the charismatic, prophetic tradition in the Church, Montanus started the Montanist movement. Its adherents counted among their number two women prophetesses, Priscilla and Maximilla, and possibly women bishops. According to historian Kenneth Scott Latourette, Montanus taught that he got “direct messages from the Spirit, that the age of the Spirit foretold in the Gospel of John had returned, and that the second coming of Christ was at hand.” There is no reason to believe that prophetic gifts had ceased in the Church at large by the latter part of the second century, but the popularity of Montanism most likely hastened ways to control such movements.

Moody, Dwight L. (1837-1899) — Evangelical

A former shoe salesman, evangelist Dwight L. Moody continued one emphasis of Great Awakening revivalism — salvation of souls through verbal proclamation of the gospel. Though earlier he had worked in the slums of Chicago, Illinois (United States), he backed away from another emphasis-involvement in poverty relief efforts. He believed that the poor first needed to come into the kingdom of God; then their physical needs would be met. This shift coincided with the premillennial movement in which he and many of his close friends and associates — R. A. Torrey, C. I. Scofield, and others — were deeply involved. Moody did, however, refuse to become embroiled in theological debates and set a policy of cooperating with many denominations in his revival campaigns. The Student Volunteer Movement was born at a Moody-sponsored Mount Hermon Bible Conference held in Northfield, Massachusetts; and several educational institutions, including Moody Bible Institute, owe their existence to him.

Moravian Movement (16th century to the present) — Contemplative

With their roots in the Anabaptist movement, the Moravian Brethren had been fractured by persecution and disagreements between leaders until survivors sought refuge on the estate of Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf in 1722. Joined by German pietists and other zealous followers, they formed the village of Herrnhut and were transformed into the Unitas Fratrum (or Moravian Church) under Zinzendorfs spiritual leadership. Herrnhut became a center of missionary activity with outposts in Suriname, Guiana, Egypt, and South Africa. All Moravian activities were undergirded by daily prayer and worship, and it was the serenity of Moravian missionaries during a storm at sea that started John Wesley on the path to a deeper faith.

Mother Teresa (1910-1997) — Social Justice

Albanian by birth, Mother Teresa knew that she wanted to be a missionary early in life. Joining the Sisters of Loretto, she initially taught school in Calcutta. Soon, though, she felt drawn to found a new order and received permission to start the Missionaries of Charity. Joined by other dedicated workers, she added a fourth vow to poverty, chastity, and obedience — wholehearted free service to the poor — and set to work helping the “poorest of the poor”: lepers, abandoned infants, starving families, and disabled beggars. Her ministry has since spread throughout the world, and at her death she received a state funeral from the nation of India.

Mort, John R. (1865-1955) — Evangelical

The first person to sign a Student Volunteer Movement (SVM) pledge to serve as a missionary, Mott got his start in the Young Men’s Christian Association. In fact, it was while he was secretary of the Intercollegiate YMCA that he organized the SVM. Dividing his time between administration and evangelism, he kept those two interests tightly integrated. From the platform of the SVM the American Mott organized the 1910 World Missionary Conference at Edinburgh (Scotland), his first involvement in the ecumenical efforts to which (along with mission work) he devoted the rest of his life. Co-receiver of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1946 and honorary chairman of the World Council of Churches in 1948, he chose to remain a Methodist layperson as he undergirded his work with prayer.

Newman, John Henry (1801-1890) — Incarnational

Newman experienced a spiritual awakening after reading William Law’s A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life and coming under the influence of a Calvinist teacher. After attending Oxford University, he was ordained and served at St. Mary’s, Oxford. There he became a leader in the Oxford (or Tractarian) Movement, which sought to interpret the Church and the Protestant Reformation in Anglo-Catholic terms. Increasingly the publication of the group, Tracts for the Times, adopted views more closely associated with the Roman Church than the Anglican, and Newman joined the Catholic Church after his Tract Ninety brought severe criticism from the bishop of Oxford and others. He was elevated to the College of Cardinals in 1879.

Newton, Isaac (1642-1727) — Incarnational

Popularly known for his “discovery” of gravitation, which he explained in Principia Mathematica, Newton also is credited with “the discovery of the differential calculus, and the first correct analysis of white light.” Deeply religious and interested in theology, he was a conforming Church of England member and had a particular fascination for the biblical prophetic books — especially Daniel and Revelation — and suggested a way to interpret them meaningfully. Ironically, his validation of the Copernican theory that the planets revolved around the sun was used by some to deprecate Christianity.

Nicodemus the Hagiorite (1748-1809) — Contemplative

Nicodemus the Hagiorite (“holy mountain”) is recognized as the primary force behind the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Orthodox spiritual revival. From the Mount Athos (Greece) monastic republic he co-edited the Philokalia, adapted and popularized the most useful Roman Catholic works and practices for the East (e.g., Lorenzo Scupoli’s Spiritual Combat and Road to Paradise under the title Unseen Warfare), wrote the important Manual of Advice on the Custody of the Five Senses and on the Imagination of the Spirit (Noûs) and the Heart, promoted monastic reform, and helped spread a spirituality of renewal through the Eastern Church. Nicodemus is especially recognized in the Orthodox Church for reintroducing traditional sources that are free of imposed cultural and political influences.

Nicolai (Kasatkin), Ivan (c. 1816-1912) — Evangelical

Sent to Japan as the chaplain to the Russian diplomatic consulate in Nagasaki, Ivan Nicolai mastered the Japanese language and then translated the Eastern Orthodox liturgical books from Russian. Expanding his original mandate in Japan, Nicolai worked to introduce Orthodoxy into Japan, utilizing an evangelistic method used by the Eastern Church since the fourteenth century: with support and students from Russia, he helped establish communities throughout Japan and helped build a cathedral in Tokyo, around which he located a seminary, a girls’ school, and other administrative support houses. Today the Orthodox Church in Japan is independent, national, and indigenous in character.

Nightingale, Florence (1820-1910) — Social Justice

Born of English parents in Florence (Italy) — after which she was named — Florence Nightingale is recognized as the founder of modern nursing. “Home-schooled” by her father and called to nursing by God, she studied the methods of the Sisters of Charity and was trained at the Institute of Protestant Deaconesses in Germany. While the superintendent of a women’s hospital in London, Florence was recruited by the British secretary of war to go to Constantinople to care for Crimean War wounded. There she initiated procedures that reformed hospital administration and nursing worldwide. She was the first woman to receive the British Order of Merit.

Nil Sorsky (or Nil of Sorsk) (1433-1508) — Contemplative

Schooled in traditional Russian monasticism. Nil Sorsky practiced solitude and hesychasm as a means to become totally detached from the world. Sorsky also allowed companions who joined him to build a monastery, for which he wrote a body of spiritual advice. But he is best remembered for opposing the “possessor” movement led by Joseph of Volokolamsk, The “possessors” believed that it was proper for monasteries to own buildings and land, while the “nonpossessors” taught that communities should be free of any possessions. Since the possessors’ position fit with the climate of the times — the czars supported the prosperity of the Russian church, and monasteries owned huge tracts of land — the possessors eventually won. The nonpossessors’ emphasis upon an interior, personal, spiritual life was too intangible.

Ninian (c. 360-c. 432) — Evangelical

Bede’s Ecclesiastical History reports that Ninian was a Briton who had been “accurately instructed” at Rome. He was consecrated as bishop of Galloway by the pope — who must have taken a personal interest in him — and sent back to his homeland to spread the gospel. With the help of stonemasons, Ninian built Candida Casa (“white house” — a church at what is now Whithorn, Scotland) on the shores of Solway Firth. This church became the base for the evangelization of the Southern Picts. Ninian and his preachers laid the foundation for later efforts by Columba and Kentigern (Mungo).

Nouwen, Henri (1932-1996) — Contemplative

Gaining world recognition as a teacher at several universities, the Dutch-born Henri Nouwen spent the last years of his life as a member of the l’Arche Daybreak Community (a home for the mentally retarded) near Toronto, Ontario (Canada). His numerous books continue to be best-sellers, especially the spiritual journal The Genesee Diary. Written during his seven-month stay in a Trappist monastery in upstate New York, it contains Nouwen’s honest, transparent meditations on his time at Genesee and challenges Christians to seek a deeper spiritual life through the practice of solitude.

O’Connor, Flannery (1925-1964) — Incarnational

O’Connor’s novels and short stories bring together two traditions: the Georgian South (United States) and Roman Catholicism. A tragic figure in her own right — she suffered from systemic lupus and died prematurely — her writings are filled with characters who struggle with physical deformity, emotional problems, spiritual disturbance, and religious obsession. The collection Flannery O’Connor: The Complete Works won a National Book Award for fiction in 1972. Her collected letters, The Habit of Being, offer intriguing insight into her personality.

Olga (c. 890-969) and Vladimir the Prince (979-1015) — Incarnational

It is unclear when Olga became a Christian, but we know from evidence gleaned from her grandson’s life that she lived an incarnational life. As regent of Kiev she had a huge influence on Vladimir who became czar of Russia (after his father and then his brother were killed in battle). Though there is evidence of Russian Christianity prior to Vladimir, he and his son, Yaroslav, are responsible for the Russian state’s officially making the transition from paganism to Christianity. Of Swedish Viking descent, Vladimir erected monasteries; promoted education; helped the poor, orphaned, and sick; and built churches. The evidence suggests, however, that he may have converted some of his subjects at the point of a sword.

Order of Widows (lst-4th centuries) — Social Justice

“The real widow … continues in supplications and prayers night and day. … Let a widow … be well attested for her good works, as one who has brought up children, shown hospitality, washed the saints’ feet, helped the afflicted, and devoted herself to doing good in every way” (Tim. 5:5, 9-10). The Order of Widows, though not universal in the first- and second-century Christian Church, involved itself in the pastoral ministries of appropriating church discipline and repentance, teaching and baptizing new converts, receiving revelations, instructing the faithful, visiting the sick and needy, praying, and fasting. After the guidelines in the Didascalia (a third-century manual on church organization) were implemented, however, they were allowed only to care for the needy, pray, and fast.

Origan (or Origenes Adamantius) (c. 185-254) — Incarnational

Considered by historians to be the best scholar of the Church during the first half of the third century, Origen was a student of another Alexandrian, Clement. He tried to join his father and teacher in martyrdom during a persecution of Christians, but the effort failed. To address the burden of caring for his family, he began teaching school. He was soon in such demand that he had to divide the classes and hire assistants. Origen’s legacy includes bringing the best of Greek philosophical thinking to Christian apologetics, compiling the Hexapla — a six-column parallel Bible with Hebrew, a Greek transliteration of the Hebrew, and four other Greek translations side by side — and writing De Principiis — one of the first efforts to systematize theology.

Oswald (c. 605-642) — Incarnational

Oswald, raised among the Scots and Picts of Christian Caledonia (Scotland), was converted to Christianity during the heat of a battle. During his reign as king of Bernicia (northeastern England), he endowed monasteries and appealed to the monastery at Iona for help in Christianizing his people, an indication that he did not separate faith from work. Aidan of Lindisfarne responded to Oswald’s appeal.

Pachomius (290-346) — Contemplative

Pachomius was a contemporary of Antony of Egypt, and like him he lived an eremetic (hermit) life for some time. But unlike Antony, Pachomius left the solitary life and founded a monastery on the banks of the Nile at Tabbenisi in Egypt. Centering the group on love and sharing, he became the founder of cenobitic (communal) monasticism. He developed a Rule for the community — a rule that Benedict of Nursia practiced and used as a resource for his own Rule over two centuries later. Pachomius is considered one of the greatest of the monastic founders.

Palmer, Phoebe (1807-1874) — Holiness

See Chapter 3.

Parks, Rosa (1913-) — Social Justice

In 1955 Rosa Parks, sometimes called the mother of the modern civil rights movement, refused to follow the convention of segregated bus-riding. Blacks were expected to pay their fare at the front door of the bus and then exit, entering again through the rear to find a seat. Rosa Parks entered, paid her fare, and then sat down in the front; and she refused to give her seat up to a white man when asked to by the driver. Her action against injustice in Montgomery, Alabama (United States), spurred people of conscience to protest the denial of rights to African-Americans, and it continues to be an example of how one person can inspire positive, lasting change.

Pascal, Blaise (1623-1662) — Holiness

A “classical” mathematician and inventor by trade, but a Christian apologist by choice, Pascal is most widely known for his posthumously published devotional classic Pensées. As a youth he became acquainted with the intellectuals of his day; as a young man he converted to Jansenism (a reform movement in the Catholic Church); as an adult he experienced a “definitive,” purifying conversion. From that point on he became a champion of God’s truth and holiness and worked to overcome the corrupt alliance between the French monarchy and the Society of Jesus (Jesuits).

Patrick (c. 390-c. 461) — Evangelical

The birthplace of Patrick is shrouded in mystery — along with most of his life and work. We do know that he was British and that at sixteen he was captured with many others by Irish pirates. Sold as a slave, he served as a shepherd in Ireland for six years before hearing a supernatural or divine voice and escaping to Gaul (France/Belgium). Eventually reunited with his family, at about twenty-three he heard voices again, beckoning him once again to go to Ireland. From that point on his life is again shrouded in mystery, but it is believed that Patrick and his followers, including Benen, evangelized Ireland. Today Patrick is known as the “patron saint of Ireland” and the founder of Irish monasticism.

Paul the Apostle (1st century) — Charismatic

See Chapter 4.

Paulinus (c. 353-431) — Social Justice

Born of a noble, wealthy Bordeaux (France) family, Paulinus gave his time to public service before becoming a Christian. Later, greatly influenced by Martin of Tours and Ambrose of Milan, he and his wife, Therasia, decided to give away their wealth to the Church and the poor. After Paulinus was ordained, they settled at Nola (central Italy) ministering to the needy there while living an austere life. Later ordained bishop of Nola, Paulinus corresponded widely with Christians leaders and counted Martin, Ambrose, and Augustine of Hippo among his friends. He was also a talented Latin poet.

Pentecostal Movement (20th century to the present) — Charismatic

Twentieth-century Pentecostals trace their origins to Bethel Bible College in Topeka, Kansas (United States), where students spoke in tongues and the Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles, which began in 1906. Coming from Baptist and Holiness backgrounds, the early leaders of this movement emphasized justification, sanctification, and the gifts (in Greek charis) of the Holy Spirit. Initially participants stayed in their own churches, since the movement was not sharply defined doctrinally. But soon Pentecostal churches and then denominations formed, shaped by three controversies: (1) baptism of the Holy Spirit as the “third blessing,” (2) integration of races, and (3) the understanding of the Trinity. The Assemblies of God rejected the “third blessing” as essential to salvation and to this day remains mostly white; the black Church of God in Christ continues to teach that the “third blessing” is essential; the major Jesus Only movement (which teaches that there is only one personality in the Godhead) split from the Assemblies of God, formed the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, and is largely nonwhite, as are its spin-off denominations. Since its birth, Pentecostalism has spread worldwide. In recent years it has grown rapidly, particularly in South America.

Perpetua (c. 180-203) — Charismatic

The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicity is a record of the visions Perpetua had when she was imprisoned in Carthage (Egypt). A well-to-do nursing mother of about twenty-two, she was a catechumen at a time when Christians were being persecuted. She was baptized during her confinement, along with five others arrested with her. The five included Felicity, Perpetua’s slave. An eyewitness to Perpetua’s martyrdom added an introduction and conclusion to Perpetua’s own record, and her catechist added some chapters, making The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicity a reliable martyrology.

Peter the Apostle (1st century) — Evangelical

See Chapter 6.

Pietist Movement (17th century to the present) — Contemplative

One of the reasons that German Pietism arose was the rejection of scholastic Lutheranism, which intellectualized Christian faith. (Scholastic reformer Philipp Melanchthon, for example, saw belief as “an assent by which you accept all articles of the faith.”) Pietism, which arose less than seventy years after the birth of the Protestant Reformation, centered on an inward, heartfelt, experiential Christian life rather than on correct dogma. Its most influential leaders were Philipp Jacob Spener and August Hermann Francke. Spener formed the basis of the movement when he set up collegia pietatis — small groups of pastors and laypeople — who gathered for prayer and Bible study. Francke, from his faculty position, established the University of Halle as the center of Pietism. From that center missionaries were sent to India and Greenland. Spreading throughout the Lutheran world-Germany, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark — Pietism’s “warm heart” reinvigorated the Moravian movement through its patron, Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf, and deeply influenced German settlers in America.

Pilgrim (19th century) — Incarnational

All we know about the Pilgrim is contained in The Way of a Pilgrim and The Pilgrim Continues His Way, a summation of classical Russian Orthodox spirituality. The record of a simple peasant’s spiritual journey, these two documents chronicle his quest to “pray without ceasing.” Given the advice to “acquire the habit of prayer and it will be easy for you to do good” by a spiritual teacher, the Pilgrim set his heart to the task with the aid of the “Jesus Prayer” (“Lord Jesus Christ, have mercy on me, a sinner”) and the Philokalia (an anthology of writings from the fourth to fourteenth centuries on prayer and the spiritual life).

Poor Clares (or Poor Ladies) (13th century to the present) — Contemplative

Unintentionally founded by Clare of Assisi, the Poor Clares (or Poor Ladies) are part of the Franciscan (or Order of Friars Minor) movement. The first group was based at San Damiano (Italy), the first church Francis renovated, and soon similar communities spread throughout Europe. Since members could not participate in the Franciscan public ministries of helping the poor and preaching, they focused on the interior or spiritual life. This focus manifested itself in the formation of a loving community. Using the poverty of Christ as its model, each monastery depended upon the work of the sisters and freewill offerings to survive.

Professional Christian Societies (20th century to the present) — Incarnational

Since World War II Christians in the marketplace have felt a special burden to bring the life of God into their life of work. To help each other in this task, philosophers, writers, dentists, doctors, lawyers, and more have joined together and formed professional organizations that meet regularly for encouragement, worship, and training. The Christian Medical and Dental Society is one such group.

Protestant Missionary Movement (18th century to the present) — Evangelical

During the hundred years prior to the formation of the Baptist Society for Propagating the Gospel Among the Heathen and William Carey’s departure for India, Protestant missionary activity was limited to home countries and colonial territories. Carey’s example and letters inspired others to form mission boards — London Missionary Society, Netherlands Missionary Society, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and more — which dispatched volunteers committed to fulfilling the Great Commission throughout the world. What started as one man’s vision radically changed the focus of Protestant Christian missions.

Protestant Reformation (16th century to the present) — Evangelical

Several influences came together to produce the Protestant Reformation. The Catholic Church was in disarray after undergoing a split papacy and was guilty of serious abuses. The Renaissance had revived classical learning (including the study of Hebrew and Greek biblical texts and early Christianity), and its teachings spread beyond the rich. Throughout Europe monarchies that were growing stronger and promoting nationalism started opposing the papacy, and some even broke away. Economically, cities that included a wealthy merchant class were growing larger and becoming independent. Then Martin Luther nailed his ninety-five theses to the Wittenberg Castle church door, and the rest is history. American historian Martin Marty divides the reform period that followed, with its many movements and branches, into five general parts: conservative reform movements (1500s), radical reform movements (1500s and 1600s), free church movement (1500s and 1600s), Methodist movement (1700s), and unity movement (1800s and 1900s).

Prudentius Clemens, Aurelius (348-c. 410) — Incarnational

Prudentius was trained in law and served in the Spanish civil service until he quit at age fifty-seven. Devoting the rest of his life to Christ, he published his Latin writings, which greatly influenced Christian poetry and hymnology. His work Psychomachia (the story of a soul’s spiritual warfare) was the first Christian allegorical epic, and his hymns are still sung today:

Of the Father’s love begotten

Ere the worlds began to be,

He is Alpha and Omega

He the source, the ending he,

Of the things that are,

that have been,

And that future years shall see,

Evermore and evermore!

Puritan Movement (16th-18th centuries) — Holiness

With their hearts in the Reformation and their roots in the Church of England, adherents of the Puritan movement sought to “purify” the Anglicanism inherited from Henry VIII. The movement’s leaders sympathized with the Reformation, accepting the Bible as authority and relying on a spiritually minded, preaching minister in every parish. They objected to the Anglican-prescribed clerical dress, kneeling during Eucharist, exchanging rings at marriage ceremonies, and using the sign of the cross in baptism. After a controversy over wearing vestments that resulted in a crackdown by the archbishop, they concluded that the New Testament pattern for church government was presbyterian (that is, elders overseeing a local church), not episcopal (bishops overseeing numerous churches). As in many other movements, some Puritans wanted to stay in the Church of England and try to reform it from within; others-known as Separatists — wanted to leave. Both happened. Heirs of the Puritan movement include Baptists, Congregationalists, and Quakers.

Raikes, Robert (1735-1811) — Social Justice

An English publisher, Robert Raikes used his newspaper, the Gloucester Journal, to publicize his benevolent causes. First he focused on prison reform; then, in 1780, he founded the Sunday School movement. After conferring with the vicar of a neighboring parish, he set the school up in his own parish and paid teachers to teach reading, writing, and the principles of the Christian faith to the children of the poor. Though the movement spread rapidly (a Society for Promoting Sunday Schools was organized in London in 1785 and a similar society in Philadelphia in 1791), the work met some opposition from clergy who felt that Sunday was being “desecrated.” But Sunday School outlasted the critics (though paid teachers gave way to volunteers), becoming a normal part of Protestant church life.

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606-1669) — Incarnational

The Netherlands’ greatest artist, Rembrandt is known worldwide for dramatic pieces that use light and shadow to heighten the drama of his subject. Rembrandt’s range included portraits, landscapes, nudes, stories from the Old and New Testaments, and more. The biblical pictures created during the last years of his life (1640-1669) seem to glow from within, the shadows intense and vibrant. Christians are especially familiar with Christ at Emmaus.

Renaissance (14th-16th centuries) — Incarnational

Beginning in Italy, the Renaissance (in Italian, Renascimento) consisted of a “rebirth” of culture in general and classical Greek and Roman culture in particular. Viewing the past thousand years as the “Middle Ages” (or intermission between the classic civilizations and their time), the leaders of this movement tried to shed all of the influence of that intermission by going back to original sources. In truth, though, they drew from both. For Western civilization the Renaissance is important because it gave birth to individualism, which allows a person to be judged on merit rather than on birth. Church historians take keen interest in this time because during the Renaissance the power of the Roman Catholic Church was weakened by the Protestant Reformation.

Roberts, Evan John (1878-1951) — Charismatic

Six years of formal education, twelve years of working in mines, and two years as a blacksmith’s apprentice did not give Evan Roberts the credentials to lead the 1904-1908 revival in Wales; the Holy Spirit did. At twenty-six Roberts felt called to the ministry, and between his acceptance and his entry into the Ministers’ Training College he was visited by God nightly. During his first year of training, the appearances stopped for some time and then began again. Later, while on retreat, he was anointed by the Holy Spirit and commissioned to preach Jesus Christ. People spontaneously responded to his first efforts, and a revival spread through all of Wales and into northern England.

Roberts, Oral (1918-) — Charismatic

As a young man Oral Roberts was healed of tuberculosis under miraculous circumstances, and this event shaped his life. With an emphasis on “seed-faith” — “Each act of faith is a seed planted and will be multiplied many times” — he has become a well-known leader in the twentieth-century Pentecostal/Charismatic movement. An ordained United Methodist minister who grew up in rural Oklahoma (United States), he continues to influence the direction of two namesakes — an evangelistic association and a university, both based in Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Rolle, Richard (c. 1300-1349) — Charismatic

Richard Rolle spent most of his life as a hermit and become part of the flowering of mystical piety. Born in Yorkshire and educated at Oxford, he wrote numerous tracts; the one for which he is known most widely is The Fire of Love. On almost every page he explores the love of God: “There must be a serious intention … to long continually for the love of God. … God the Holy Trinity is to be loved for himself alone. … It behooves us to make sure that the love of Christ is in us. … No creature can love God too much.” Rolle served as a spiritual director for Cistercian nuns at Hampole during his last years.

Roman Catholic Missionary Movement (16th century to the present) — Evangelical

The revival of missionary zeal within the Roman Church was a direct outgrowth of the sixteenth-century Roman Catholic Reformation. Central to the execution of the Catholic Reformation was Ignatius of Loyola and the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) that he founded. The secret to their crucial role was Ignatius’s decision to place every Jesuit at the pope’s disposal, an original and very expedient idea. This allowed the order to be assigned to missions crucial to Rome, and the pope sent that small, totally dedicated, highly gifted band of men throughout the world. With the Franciscans and Dominicans, the Jesuits evangelized and made converts from the Philippines in the east to the New World in the west.

Roman Catholic Reformation (16th century) — Holiness

A mid-sixteenth-century effort that brought reform to the Catholic Church, the Roman Catholic Reformation streamed from such movements as the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life and the efforts of earlier leaders — preacher Girolamo Savonarola, Spanish Dominican Vincent Ferrer, preacher Bernardino of Siena, and Catherine of Siena. During the Roman Catholic Reformation, revival radiated from its two main centers in Spain and Italy; “oratories” composed of clergy and lay members cultivated personal piety and charitable actions; orders of clerks emphasized spirituality, clergy reform, and charity; monastic orders caught a vision for missions; and mystical piety flourished.

Romantic Movement (18th-19th centuries) — Incarnational

Romanticism valued emotion over reason, imagination over comprehension, inspiration over logic, spontaneity over restraint, and freedom over order in the arts and literature. Its opposite was classicism. Poets Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and William Wordsworth were part of the Romantic movement.

Russian Novelists (19th century) — Incarnational

Count Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky are Russia’s two greatest novelists. Writing during the age of realism, when the novel — their chosen genre — was the principal literary form, they focused on the human condition. In War and Peace and Anna Karenina, Tolstoy explored such universal themes as birth, love, marriage, moral duty, and death. Dostoyevsky’s characters in Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov experience violent spiritual struggles between their pride and self-centeredness and their belief in God.

Sabas (c. 438-532)-Social Justice

Living to the age of ninety-four, Sabas is remembered for intervening with the Emperor Justinian on behalf of the Palestinians who were suffering under Samaritan control. In negotiations Sabas agreed to help free Palestine if Justinian lowered taxes, built a hospital for pilgrims, constructed a fort to protect monks and hermits from raiders in Jerusalem, and granted the monks religious freedom. Justinian agreed. Earlier Sabas had built three hospitals and a monastery with his inheritance.

Salvation Army (19th century to the present) — Social Justice

Founded by Catherine Mumford and William Booth, the Salvation Army was not a significant movement in Christianity until the publication of the book In Darkest England and the Way Out in 1890. Bearing William Booth’s name and containing his ideas, it describes the ills of English society and prescribes cures. After the release of the book, the Army quickly expanded, spreading the world over, and is one of the most respected Christian benevolent efforts ever. It continues to minister to the neediest of people — body and soul.

Samson (c. 485-c. 565) — Charismatic

A miraculous “child of promise,” Samson was dedicated to God and placed in a Welsh monastery at age five by his parents. After ordination, he reluctantly returned home to administer last rites to his father, who recovered and decided to join Samson in the monastery. Unhappy as abbot of first one monastery and then another, Samson saw a vision that told him to go beyond the seas. Traveling across Cornwall, where he restored to health a boy who had been thrown from a horse, he took a ship to Brittany. There he became known for performing miracles, evangelizing, and establishing churches and monasteries.

Savonarola, Girolamo (1452-1498) — Holiness

A Dominican friar and member of the San Marco monastery, Savonarola was a spiritual grandson of Catherine of Siena, a contemporary of Catherine of Genoa, and one of Italy’s greatest late-Renaissance preachers and reformers. His efforts to correct the evils of Florentine society centered in powerful, prophetic sermons that garnered the loyalty of the citizens. When several predictions came true and the ruling Medici family fled after an invasion by France, he became the de facto ruler and put in place tax and judicial reforms and programs to help the poor. However, his story ends unhappily: Savonarola was executed by the city government of Florence after unpopular political views eroded his popularity and enemies mounted an offensive.

Schweitzer, Albert (1875-1965) — Social Justice

As a medical doctor Albert Schweitzer established a missionary hospital and medical station at Lambaréné, French Equatorial Africa (now Gabon). As a philosopher Schweitzer formulated his “reverence for life” in a book of the same title that was published posthumously. As a theologian he wrote The Quest of the Historical Jesus and other works. As a musician he interpreted the music and life of Johann Sebastian Bach and was an expert organist and authority on organ construction. But Schweitzer centered most of his energy at Lambaréné, tending to the medical needs of the Congolese for fifty-two years.

Seraphim of Sarov (1759-1833) — Charismatic

Described by historian Louis Bouyer as a combination of Francis of Assisi and Jean-Baptiste Vianney, Seraphim radiated joy, made friends with God’s creatures, detached himself from the world, eased souls into serenity, devotedly gave to charity, and periodically saw visions. Possibly the most luminous and winsome figure of recent Russian Orthodoxy, he has been the subject of many stories — stories so richly embellished that truth is hard to distinguish from fiction. However, this ascetic monk from Kursk, a man who loved solitude, seemed to live with one foot in the natural world and one foot in-the supernatural.

Sergius of Radonezh (1314-1392) — Contemplative

Sergius’s life followed a pattern we are now familiar with: as a young man he felt drawn to solitude, which he found in the forests near Radonezh (Russia). There he stayed, but others joined him and built a monastery and church. He was so beloved by the people that his reputation spread, and he became the spiritual leader of the nation. Sergius is also credited with uniting the feuding Russian princes who marched against the Tartars at Kulikovo Pole. Prior to the battle the princes had sought the advice of the saintly Sergius, and he had said, “Go forward and fear not. God will help thee.” His words were prophetic. The princes won the battle, starting the long process of throwing off two hundred years of Mongol occupation.

Seymour, William (1870-1922) — Charismatic

See Chapter 4.

Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper (or Lord Shaftesbury) (1801-1885) — Social Justice

A vigorous social reformer Shaftesbury campaigned on such matters as the treatment of the mentally ill; the terms of employment for workers in factories, mills, and mines; and the use of boys as chimney sweeps. As a member of the House of Lords he consistently called for improvement of the living conditions of industrial workers. As a landowner he built a model village in Dorset. In addition, he was president of numerous philanthropic and missionary societies, including the Ragged School Union, the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, and the British and Foreign Bible Society.

Shakarian, Demos (1913-) — Charismatic

Descended from Armenian Christians, Demos Shakarian was filled with the Holy Spirit at age thirteen in his home church in Los Angeles (United States). But Shakarian was a thirty-eight-year-old dairyman before he started the Full Gospel Business Men’s Fellowship International. From a group of twenty-one people meeting during lunch in a room over a cafeteria in 1951, the organization grew to over seventeen hundred chapters worldwide and reached one billion people yearly with the gospel. Intentionally organized to appeal to the ordinary businessman, it has been joined by similar efforts: Christian Women’s Clubs, Women’s Aglow, and others.

Sigfrid (?-c. 1045) — Evangelical

Sigfrid and two other missionary bishops were sent by the English king, Ethelred, to Norway at the request of King Olaf Tryggvason. But they did not stop permanently in Norway; they went on to Sweden, where Sigfrid settled at Växjö and built a church. He is credited with converting the Swedish king, Olaf Skötkonung, and with preaching the gospel in Denmark.

Simeon (or Symeon) the New Theologian (949-1022) — Contemplative

Coming from the tradition of Maximus the Confessor and John Climacus, Simeon was the earliest proponent of hesychasm. He taught that theology transcends reason. Rather than knowing God with the intellect, God is perceived through the continual living of faith. Since God is beyond comprehension, we must be caught up in the “light” — God’s self-communication or divine energy, which flows from him and is uncreated. This teaching, further refined by the fourteenth-century monk Gregory of Palamas, stands as the key difference between Greek/Eastern and Latin/Western theology.

Simons, Merino (1496-1561) — Holiness

A former Catholic priest, the moderate Menno Simons is credited with helping save the Anabaptist movement by his emphasis upon purity of life and discipleship to Christ. Radical millennialism had almost ruined the movement, but Simons’s wise, moral, devotional ministry helped rehabilitate it. To preserve church purity, he introduced the “ban” or “shunning,” to be exercised by the community against offenders until they repented. Under his guidance, the movement practiced foot-washing as a sign of humility, strongly opposed war, and believed in the separation of church and state. Menno Simons traveled for twenty-five years throughout Germany and the Netherlands, preaching and planting churches. Today Mennonite churches follow his teaching.

Slessor, Mary (1848-1915) — Evangelical

Reared in a poor working-class Scottish home and given little education, Mary Slessor had only her experience as a Sunday School teacher and missions helper to prepare her for service in Calabar (Nigeria). There she faced constant danger from warring, witchcraft-practicing tribes, but she finally won over the tribal chiefs and their people. Besides bringing the gospel to West Africa, Slessor encouraged trade, opposed slavery, improved conditions for women, ended the killing of twins at birth, and guided the opening of the Hope Waddell Institute, a job-training center.

Smith, Hannah Whitall (1832-1911) — Holiness

Smith is most often remembered for her book The Christians Secret of a Happy Life. First published in 1870, this spiritual classic explores why followers of Christ lack joy and invites them to lead a full and blessed life. “I saw, as in a flash, that the religion of Christ ought to be, and was meant to be, to its possessors, not something to make them miserable, but something to make them happy; and I began then and there to ask the Lord to show me the secret of a happy Christian life.”

Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr (1918- ) — Incarnational

Many elements contributed to the collapse of Eastern European and Soviet communism, but novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s writings played a significant role in undermining communism’s moral authority. While serving in the Soviet army, Solzhenitsyn was falsely accused of a political crime and imprisoned. His first novel, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, describes that prison life, and Cancer Ward takes place in a hospital. The stories contrast revolutionary ideals with harsh political reality and describe heroes whose human dignity triumphs over tyranny and suffering. The trilogy known as The Gulag Archipelago, 1918-1956 studies the Soviet prison-camp system. In response to the publication of the first book in that trilogy in 1973, the Soviet Union revoked Solzhenitsyn’s citizenship and deported him. After the collapse of communism he returned to his beloved Russia in 1994 and continues to live there.

Spurgeon, Charles Haddon (1834-1892) — Evangelical

One of the most magnetic and successful preachers in nineteenth-century England, Spurgeon began preaching at age sixteen. By age twenty he had been asked to pastor a Baptist church in London, and his preaching drew such large crowds that the church had to build an addition. He preached at a public hall while the space was being added, but it soon proved too small. Finally, the church built a five-thousand-seat tabernacle to accommodate the large crowds, and Spurgeon preached there until just before his death.

Stephen of Hungary (c. 970-1038) — Incarnational

The son of Geza, duke of the Magyars, Stephen was baptized with the rest of his family and became governor when his father died. As Hungary’s first king, he consolidated his rule and gradually established sees with churches and monasteries at their centers. He exercised his kingly rights, commanding that people pay tithes to support a church and priest in every tenth town, repressing public crimes such as blasphemy and murder, abolishing tribal divisions, dividing the land into “counties,” and limiting the accumulation of wealth by nobility. The architect of an independent Hungary, his example of virtue inspired the people under his rule.

Student Volunteer Movement (19th-20th centuries) — Evangelical

With the motto “the evangelization of the world in this generation,” and with John R. Mott as leader, the Student Volunteer Movement became the greatest student missionary force in history. Created at a Dwight L. Moody-sponsored Mount Hermon Bible Conference, it formed the base for the World Student Christian Federation organized in 1895 in Sweden. Non-denominational student chapters prophetically pioneered in the evangelistic training of men and women worldwide. As adults the student volunteers went on to lead other ecumenical efforts.

Suffrage Movement (19th century to the present) — Social Justice

Broadly defined, suffrage is the right of voting or the exercise of such right. In most Western countries the controversy over suffrage has centered on the right of women to vote in local and national elections. In the original American Colonies some women were able to vote, but by 1807 all states had rescinded that right. In the 1830s new conditions — women in the labor force, men needing the help of women in social reform efforts — created the women’s suffrage movement, but it took almost ninety years to get women’s right to vote included in the U.S. Constitution. New Zealand granted women the right to vote in 1893, followed in quick succession by Finland, Norway, Australia, Denmark, Iceland, Russia, and others. At present only a half-dozen countries deny women the right to vote; one country also denies the right to certain classes of people.

Sundar Singh (c. 1889-1929) — Charismatic

As a member of a wealthy Sikh family, Sundar was expected to become a sadhu (Indian holy man), but after a dramatic vision he became a Christian. He adopted the dress of the sadhu and traveled throughout India and beyond, preaching the gospel to huge audiences, trying to live as Christ did, and experiencing many visions and miracles. He failed to return from an evangelistic trip to Tibet in April 1929 but left behind numerous writings, including At the Feet of the Master, his best-known work in the West.

Sunday, Billy (or William Ashley) (1862-1935) — Evangelical

An estimated one million people responded to Billy Sunday’s evangelistic messages and walked the tabernacle “sawdust trail.” An Iowan whose Union father was killed in the American Civil War before he got to see his son, Billy became self-sufficient at age fourteen. Over the next nineteen years he earned a high school education, played professional baseball, came to Christ, got married, worked full-time at the YMCA, and helped evangelist J. Wilbur Chapman. When Chapman left mass evangelism in 1895, Sunday began holding meetings on his own. Periodically coming under criticism for various reasons — lack of follow-up and social action, ministerial failings, sensationalism — he persevered. One of his innovations, the “love offering,” became the usual way to pay evangelists. By 1919 Sunday’s popularity had waned, but he continued to lead meetings until his death. Never traveling beyond the United States, he left no institution to carry on his work.

Sunday School Movement (18th century to the present) — Social Justice

The first systematic effort to educate children came as a direct result of the Evangelical Revival in England. Founded by newspaper publisher Robert Raikes and named the Ragged School, the first Sunday School had as its purpose the teaching of reading, writing, and the Christian faith to children of the poor on the only day they were free. Piggybacking on the Protestant missionary movement, the concept of Sunday School spread quickly to all parts of the world, and the model was adopted by the Roman Catholic Church as well as by other faiths. With the advent of tax-supported public education, the focus changed from general education of children only to religious instruction for all ages, as a complement to Sunday worship services.

Swithun (or Swithin) (c. 802-c. 862) — Social Justice

As prince of Wessex and counselor and chaplain to two kings of the West Saxons, Swithun became known for his concern for the needy, his humility, and his dedication to church building programs. He was named bishop of Winchester in 852. In the church calendar, Swithun’s feast day is July 15, and in England it is a weather indicator similar to America’s Groundhog Day. But instead of predicting how much winter remains, it predicts rainfall: if it rains on July 15, there will be rain every day for forty days; if the weather is fair, then it will be fair for forty days.

Taylor, James Hudson (1832-1905) — Incarnational

James Hudson Taylor’s grandparents were influenced by John Wesley, his father had a deep concern for the spiritual needs of China, and his mother prayed unceasingly. By age five Taylor had indicated an interest in being a missionary to China, and, though with frail health, he studied medicine, theology, Latin, and Greek as a young man. Upon arrival in China he adopted local customs and dress and worked tirelessly to enculturate the gospel into Chinese life. When he discovered that his sponsoring mission organization was operating on borrowed money, he founded the interdenominational China Inland Mission (CIM). With half of the missionaries in China affiliated with the CIM by the turn of the century, Taylor’s contribution to the church in China is immense.

Taylor, Jeremy (1613-1667) — Holiness

The “Shakespeare of English divines,” Taylor is best known for two books, The Rule and Exercises of Holy Living and The Rule and Exercises of Holy Dying (sometimes published in one volume). Containing practical, down-to-earth advice for Christians, these books continue to guide us into a life of sacrifice and humility for the good of our own souls. “It is not sufficient to think of the service of God as an optional work. Rather it is to be done as God intended it — with great earnestness and passion, with much zeal and desire. … Humility is the great ornament and jewel of Christian religion by which it is distinguished from all the wisdom of the world.”

Teresa of Ávila (or Teresa of Jesus) (1515-1582) — Holiness

Discontent with the laxness of her Carmelite monastic life, Teresa of Ávila sought new depths of contemplation and experienced a spiritual awakening at forty. Resolving to found a reformed order, Teresa received permission seven years later. After establishing the first convent, St. Joseph of Avila, Teresa started sixteen other Discalced (“barefooted”) Carmelite communities. Though a semi-invalid, she traveled extensively throughout Spain, becoming a leader of the Catholic Reformation. In spite of her infirmity and busy schedule, she wrote Life (or Autobiography), The Way of Perfection, Book of Foundations, and the book most widely known, Interior Castle.

Thérèsa of Lisieux (1873-1897) — Contemplative

Known to us as “the Little Flower,” Thérèsa entered a convent at fifteen, taking seriously the principal Carmelite duty of praying for the clergy and the “lapsed.” Even though her health was delicate, she was able to fulfill all of her obligations (other than fasting) under the austere Rule. She also wrote the widely read devotional classic The Little Way and her autobiography, The Story of a Soul. Soon after volunteering to join missionaries in Hanoi (Vietnam) — and before she could make the trip — she contracted tuberculosis and died. She was only twenty-four.

Tertullian (c. 160-c. 225) — Holiness

Converted sometime in his late thirties, Tertullian became a leading third-century apologist for the Christian faith, along with Origen and Cyprian. Key works in which he defended Christianity include Against Marcion, Against the Valentinians, and Against Praxeas. He also wrote voluminously in the areas of Christian theology, morality, and practice. His systematic formulation of the doctrine of the Trinity (the term Trinitas was first applied to the Deity by Tertullian) influenced later expositions by church fathers — Athanasius and Augustine among them — and the Councils of Nicea and Chalcedon. Tertullian was often perceived as rigid because his writings on marriage, penance, baptism, and other issues emphasize that the Church is composed of people whose faith separates them from the world. He urged Christians not to participate in anything that comes into contact with the “gods” of the pagan world: army, government, educational institutions, public amusements, and even some businesses. He seemed to become more moralistic with age, joining the Montanists, a separatist group that emphasized sexual purity and holy living. Eventually he left even the Montanists and started his own sect. In spite of these digressions, Tertullian is viewed as the founder of Latin (Western) Christian doctrine, giving it its vocabulary and basic agenda.

Thomas à Kempis (1179-1471) — Holiness

Thomas a Kempis, ordained a priest by a Windesheimer “congregation” in the Netherlands, was the best-known member of the renewal movement known as the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life. Author of sermons, chronicles, and devotional works, he distilled the holiness teaching of this devotio moderna (“modern devotion”) movement in The Imitation of Christ. Excluding the Bible, that volume is the most widely read book of Western Christianity.

Tikhon of Zadonsk (1727-1783) — Social Justice

Tikhon’s story sounds strange to our ears: appointed superior of a monastery and then resigning; living the rest of his life in a small, squalid hut in the woods; reading Roman Catholic and Protestant books on contemporary Western piety; spending whole nights in prayer; suffering through a dark night of the soul. In context, though, his is a heartwarming story: Tikhon distributed to the poor the entire pension given to him by the Russian empress. He denied himself the necessities of life so that he could give to those who flocked to him. And when he had given all away and could no longer personally give anything to the poor, he carried on a voluminous correspondence. Fyodor Dostoyevsky may have based Father Zossima, a character in The Brothers Karamazov, on Tikhon of Zadonsk.

Truth, Sojourner (or Isabella Van Wagenen) (c. 1797-1883) —Social Justice

Isabella Van Wagenen was born from below as a slave in New York (Unites States). In 1843, in her middle years, she was born from above as a child of God. She then took a new name — Sojourner Truth — and hit the road as an itinerant preacher. Highly intelligent, though with no formal education, “Truth had great presence. She was tall, some 5 feet 11 inches, of spare but solid frame. Her voice was low, … and her singing voice was powerfully beautiful. No one ever forgot the power and pathos of Sojourner Truth’s singing, just as her wit and originality of phrasing were also of lasting remembrance. … Truth was first and last an itinerant preacher. From the late 1840s through the late 1870s, she traveled the American land, denouncing slavery and slavers, advocating freedom, women’s rights, woman suffrage, and temperance.”

Tubman, Harriet (Moses) (c. 1820-1913) — Social Justice

A generation younger than Sojourner Truth, Harriet Tubman was born a slave in Maryland (United States), married a free man, and escaped and went to Philadelphia via the Underground Railroad in 1849. Having vowed to return and assist other slaves, she went back one year later; over the next ten years she helped over three hundred people gain their freedom. During the Civil War she served as a Union army nurse, scout, and spy, still helping countless slaves escape to freedom via the Underground Railroad. Returning to New York after the war, Tubman raised money for black schools and established a home for needy and elderly blacks. She and Sojourner Truth are America’s most famous nineteenth-century African-American women.

Tutu, Desmond (1931-) — Social Justice

Wanting to be a teacher but unable to pursue that dream because of the Bantu Education Act that limited learning opportunities for blacks, Tutu, inspired by white priests working in the slums of South Africa, entered the Anglican Church and was ordained. With gifts for speaking and diplomacy, he rapidly advanced, becoming the first black Anglican archbishop of Cape Town in 1986. In that position he worked tirelessly against apartheid. Profoundly religious — he fasts, prays, meditates, and withdraws for times of silence — Tutu has been a key figure in the disassembly of apartheid and continues to work for harmony and peace as chair of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

Underhill, Evelyn (1875-1941) — Contemplative

Evelyn Underhill was a widely acknowledged English scholar in Christian mysticism, writing such pioneering works as Mysticism, Abba, The Ways of the Spirit, and her much-praised Worship, a study of the liturgical practices of a number of church traditions. With Baron Friedrich von Hügel as her spiritual director, she deepened and grew in her understanding of the Christian life and witness and was a pioneer in the British retreat movement.

Vanier, Jean (1928-) — Social Justice

Jean Vanier believes that he was “just a catalyst” in the life of the l’Arche communities. At their heart is love — love for the mentally retarded, “who have been excluded from society” and who “can become instruments of God’s love.” He writes, “The essential way then is not to do things for the poor but rather to be with them in a covenant of love. It is to grow with them, to celebrate with them, to pray with them, to hope with them. L’Arche thus becomes a means and a channel whereby the poor can give their message to the church and to the world.”

Veniaminov, John (1798-1879) — Evangelical

John Veniaminov placed Alaskan Orthodox mission efforts on a firm basis. Working from 1824 until 1853, he developed the work started by a group of monks who had established the first mission in 1794. Veniaminov’s accomplishments include translating the Gospels and liturgy into Aleutian, founding a native priesthood, opening a seminary in Sitka, showing interest in native customs and beliefs about which he wrote extensively, and undertaking year-long evangelistic journeys to remote islands. He is regarded by the Russian Orthodox Church as the greatest of its nineteenth-century missionaries, and Veniaminov is honored by American Orthodox members as their chief “apostle.”

Vianney, Jean-Baptiste (or John Baptist) (1786-1859) — Social Justice

Jean-Baptiste Vianney’s life reminds “ordinary” people that God does not require perfection to accomplish his purposes. As a child Vianney faced one obstacle after another — extreme poverty, a lack of formal education and religious instruction, political upheaval, and more. As a young man he joined the army but lost his way. Technically a deserter, he went into hiding for almost two years. Finally accepted into a minor seminary, he had to drop out because the studies were too hard. And on it goes. But as priest of the 250-person parish of Ars-en-Dombes (France), the servant Vianney met the needs of the people. He started a free school for girls. He chided the people until they quit drinking and dancing. Though other clergy made fun of him, nonetheless he became so famous that people went to Ars by the thousands to confess their sins. Today the Cure” d’Ars is honored as the patron saint of parochial clergy.

Vincent de Paul (c. 1581-c. 1660) — Social Justice

The fact that Vincent de Paul was born a peasant at Ranquines (France) and was condemned to two years as a slave by pirates undoubtedly contributed to his compassion and sense of justice in later life. He studied the humanities and prepared for ordination, thereby moving out of a life of poverty. After his capture by Turkish pirates while on a trip to Narbonne and subsequent escape, he came under the influence of Pierre de Beguile, who further awakened his concern for the downtrodden. In his position as a parish priest he ministered to the poor, and in 1625 he was appointed superior of the order known as the Congregation of the Mission (also known as the Vincentians, or Lazarists).

Vincent Madelgarius (c. 615-c. 687) and Waldetrude (or Waudru) (?-c. 688) — Incarnational

Vincent and Waldetrude, both from France, raised four children who served the cause of Christ. Immersion in everyday life did not deter them from following their spiritual impulses. In their latter years both started communities — Vincent the monastery of Hautmont, Waldetrude the convent at Chateaulieu. They are a wonderful example of ordinary people living incarnationally, first as a couple with children, then in community with other Christians.

Vincentians (or Lazarists) (17th century to the present) — Social Justice

Formally known as the Congregation of the Mission, the Vincentians were founded by Vincent de Paul in 1625. A congregation of secular priests, they take four vows — poverty, chastity, obedience, and stability — and are employed in missions, especially among the poor. They also conduct retreats, start hospitals, and found seminaries. At Vincent’s urging and with the help of Louise de Marillac, an order of enclosed women dedicated to serving the sick and poor — the Daughters of Charity — was established in 1633. Other non-resident members, wealthy women, collect funds and assist the Vincentians in their charitable work.

Vladimir Monomakh (?-1125) — Social Justice

This Russian prince wrote to his children, “Praise God, and love men. … Forget not the poor, but feed them. … Do not bury your wealth in the ground; this is against the precepts of Christianity. Be fathers to orphans, be judges in the cause of widows and do not let the powerful oppress the weak. Put to death neither the innocent nor the guilty, for nothing is so sacred as the life and the soul of a Christian. Do not desert the sick. … Drive out of your heart all suggestions of pride and remember that we are all mortal, to-day full of hope, to-morrow in the coffin. Abhor lying, drunkenness and debauchery.”

von Hügel, Friedrich (1852-1925) — Contemplative

Born in Florence (Italy) this noble son of an Austrian diplomat received a cosmopolitan education from private tutors. He came to a deeper faith when an attack of typhus left him deaf and with permanently damaged health at age eighteen. Subsequently moving to England, he became a friend of several leaders in the turn-of-the-century Roman Catholic modernist movement and spiritual adviser to many in cultured social circles, including Evelyn Underhill. Though highly critical of certain developments within the Roman Catholic Church, he avoided being excommunicated, probably because of his lay status. Baron von Hügel wrote several books, among which is the classic Selected Letters.

Vulmar or (Wulmar) (?-c. 700) — Contemplative

Manied, but forced to separate from his wife because of her earlier betrothal to a noble Frank, Vulmar entered a monastery. There he took care of the cattle and hewed the wood. Known for his prayer life, he was ordained a priest but promptly left to spend time in solitude. Some years later he founded the abbey of Samer near Calais (France) and a nunnery at Wierrc-aux-Bois.

Wesley, Charles (1707-1788) — Charismatic

The younger brother of John Wesley, Oxford-educated Charles was converted three days before John and was as indispensable as his brother to the Methodist or “holiness” movement. Like John he preached in England and America. His greatest impact, though, came through the approximately eight thousand hymns he wrote — hymns that teach Christian doctrine and witness to his rich personal faith. Following in the tradition of hymn writer Isaac Watts, he wrote songs that were meant to be read and sung. It is no small wonder that “O, For a Thousand Tongues to Sing,” “Hark, the Herald Angels Sing,” “Christ the Lord Is Risen Today,” and more have endured these two hundred plus years.

Wesley, John (1703-1791) — Holiness

On 24 May 1738, after a disastrous missionary and pastoral trip to the United States, the Anglican Wesley went to a Moravian meeting on Aldersgate Street, London. With a soul prepared by discussions about the nature of faith with Moravian Peter Bolder and a peculiar heaviness of heart, John had a life-changing experience: “I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation.” What followed was a life poured out in service to God. Wesley’s efforts — traveling over a quarter-million miles to preach over forty-two thousand sermons, publishing over two hundred books, pioneering or participating in most of the social causes of the day — helped save England from the chaos of a revolution like the one that devastated France.

Wesley, Susanna (1669-1742) — Incarnational

See Chapter 7.

Whitfield, George (1714-1770) — Evangelical

With the two Wesleys, Whitfield was a leader of the Evangelical Revival in England and the First Great Awakening in the Colonies. He preached whenever and wherever possible: in open fields, at religious society meeting houses, in public halls, in barns, and more. Though Anglican, he freely worked with other denominations, refusing to let doctrinal differences affect where he preached and enlisting the help of laypeople. In America he inspired Jonathan Edwards and Gilbert Tennet, and historian Chris Mitchell writes that in the British Isles Whitfield “fanned into flame the revival fires that swept through Scotland and Wales in the early 1740s.” Some have called him the founder of American revivalism.

Wilberforce, William (1759-1833) — Social Justice

Despite having been born into the merchant class (which was despised by the aristocracy and landed gentry), Wilberforce became a member of the British House of Commons at twenty-one. An eloquent orator and the best friend of Prime Minister William Pitt, he wielded enormous influence. Two years before Pitt asked Wilberforce to “give a notice of a motion on the subject of the Slave Trade,” he had experienced a time of spiritual turmoil, and ex-slaver John Newton had led him to a “rededication” to Christ. Pitt asked and Wilberforce was ready — in soul and position — to spearhead the effort to ban slavery. Abolishing slavery became the great passion of his life. A bill to end the slave trade was passed in 1807, though it took another eighteen years to finally abolish slavery.

Wilfred (634-709) — Evangelical

Wilfred was sent to the monastery at Celtic Lindisfarne as a young teenager and later learned Christian ideas and traditions at Canterbury and Rome. Preferring Roman practice to Celtic, he spent his life embroiled in the struggle to make Roman traditions the official practice of the church in Northumbria (one of seven kingdoms in ancient Great Britain). Alternately appointed to church offices, deposed, exiled, then reappointed, Wilfred spent seven years during one exile in southern England, where he evangelized the Saxons of Sussex (also teaching them better methods of fishing during a famine). From there he promoted the evangelization of the Isle of Wight, the last area in England to hear the gospel.

Williams, Roger (1603-1683) — Social Justice

A clergyman and Dissenter (and briefly a Baptist), Williams graduated from Cambridge University and immigrated to New England when the Dissenters came under persecution. Refusing an invitation to become a minister of the only Boston church because it did not acknowledge its separation from the Church of England, he finally accepted a position at the Salem church. Then he ran afoul of authorities when he disputed their right to take land from the Native Americans without compensation. Under threat of deportation, he escaped into the wilderness, secured land from the Native Americans, and founded Providence, the capital of Rhode Island. Williams’s tracts — The Bloody Tenant of Persecution and The Bloody Tenant Yet More Bloody — defended religious liberty and the separation of church and state, main tenets of the American experience.

Willibrord (658-739) — Evangelical

A native of Northumbria (Britain) educated at the monastery of Ripon (near York), Willibrord devoted his life to bringing the gospel to the Frisian Islands (the Netherlands and northern Germany). In alliance with the new Frisian king he received official permission from Rome and began to see mass conversions and acceptance of Christianity in northwestern Europe. He suffered hardship when the previous ruler retook the Frisias, however, fleeing to Scandinavia and Germany for safety. Upon that ruler’s death, Willibrord returned and rebuilt the churches and monasteries with the help of Boniface, his own successor; and people again began to come to Christ.

Wimber, John (1934-1997) — Charismatic

Before he came to Christ in 1963, John Wimber was a professional musician and founding member of the Righteous Brothers, an American rock group. His “baptism” by the Holy Spirit about a year after his conversion propelled him into the worldwide Christian community, where he became known as an evangelist, pastor, Bible teacher, composer, founder of the Vineyard movement, and conduit for the power of the Holy Spirit. When this “gentle giant” prayed, things happened — people were made whole, relationships were healed, souls were saved — and observers caught a glimpse of what could happen when someone wholeheartedly became, as John put it, “a fool for Christ.”

Woolman, John (1720-1772) — Social Justice

See Chapter 5.

Wycliffe, John (c. 1329-1384) — Evangelical

Once the Catholic Church had controlled the expansion of two Central European sects, it found itself faced with two new threats to its control: John Wycliffe in England and John Huss (or Jan Hus) in Bohemia. The foremost scholar of his day at Oxford, Wycliffe boldly criticized and questioned major practices and dogmas of the Church, eventually rejecting its whole medieval structure. Named by some the “Morning Star of the Reformation,” he and his followers (later called Lollards) translated the entire Bible from Latin into English, making it available to many in Britain. Wycliffe’s writings came into Huss’s possession — and thereby into wider circulation on the Continent. A century later Martin Luther was also influenced by Wycliffe’s writings.

Xavier, Francis (1506-1552) — Evangelical

Francis Xavier, one of the first Jesuit missionaries, is the foremost Roman Catholic missionary of contemporary times. One of the founding members of the Society of Jesus, in ten years of work the noble-born Spaniard carried Catholicism to Goa and southern India, the Malay Archipelago, the Molucca Islands (part of Indonesia), and Japan. He is credited with seven hundred thousand converts — but not without controversy: he was intolerant of Oriental religions, urged the Portuguese king to institute the Inquisition in Goa, and used government pressure to convert people. In spite of the controversies, he was a superb organizer and pioneer in the use of common languages in mission work.

Zinzendorf, Nikolaus Ludwig von (1700-1760) — Contemplative

Passionate personal devotion to Christ marked the life of Count Zinzendorf. Relatives urged him to go into public service in Dresden (Germany), yet he preferred to cultivate “heart religion”; so he opened his home to anyone seeking spiritual guidance. Buying a large estate — that included the village of Berthelsdorf — he appointed a friend to the pastorate, and this opened the door to his life’s work. When asked to give the remnants of the Unitas Fratrum (or Moravians) sanctuary on the estate, he let them found a village, Herrnhut. Under his leadership Herrnhut became a center of Pietism. To avoid trouble with the authorities, he became a Lutheran pastor, but the movement he sponsored ultimately challenged the nominal faith of German Lutheranism.

Zwingli, Huldrych (1484-1531) — Evangelical

Probably the third most important figure in the Protestant Reformation (following Martin Luther and John Calvin), Huldrych Zwingli came under the influence of humanist Desiderius Erasmus’s teaching. He agreed with the other reformers on many issues, including salvation by faith, the Bible as the sole authority for the Church, and the priesthood of all believers. But he disagreed with them on the Eucharist and was more concerned for the “renaissance of Christendom” than for individual salvation. As he studied and came under Augustinian and biblical influence, Zwingli modified some of his teachings, which were being spread through much of German-speaking Switzerland. According to church historian Geoffrey Bromiley, Zwingli’s reform alternative, though more radical than Martin Luther’s, was adopted by Calvin in Geneva and influenced the development of Reformed and Presbyterian polity and theology.

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