Antiochus was obliged to acquiesce for the time in the arrangement which they made. But while

Antiochus was obliged to acquiesce for the time in the arrangement which they made. But while

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when he returned to Alexandria he determined to inflict on the Alexandrine Jews the vengeance for his disappointment. He was succeeded by his only child, Ptolemy V. Epiphanes who was at the time only four or five years old. PTOLEMAEUS V. EPIPHANES, B.C. 205-181. The reign of Ptolemy Epiphanes was a critical epoch in the history of the Jews. The rivalry between the Syrian and Egyptian parties, some time divided the people, came to an open rupture in the struggles which marked his minority. In the strong language of Daniel "The robbers of the people exalted themselves to establish the vision." (Daniel 11:14) The accession of Ptolemy and the confusion of a disputed regency furnished a favorable opportunity for foreign invasion. "Many stood up against the king of the south" under Antiochus the Great and Philip III of Macedonia, who formed a league for the dismemberment of his kingdom. "So the king of the north [Antiochus] came, and cast up a mount, and took the most fenced city [Sidon], and the arms of the south did not withstand" [at Paneas B.C. 198]. (Daniel 11:14,15) The Romans interfered, and in order to retain the provinces of Coele-Syria, Phoenicia and Judea, Antiochus "gave him [Ptolemy] a young maiden" [his daughter Cleopatra as his betrothed wife]. (Daniel 11:27) But in the end his policy only partially succeeded. After the marriage of Ptolemy and Cleopatra was consummated B.C. 193, (Cleopatra, did "not stand on his side," but supported her husband in maintaining the alliance with Rome. The disputed provinces, however remained in the possession of Antiochus and Ptolemy was poisoned at the time when he was preparing an expedition to recover them from Seleucus, the unworthy successor of Antiochus. PTOLEMAEUS VI. PHILOMETOR, B.C. 181-145. On the death of Ptolemy Epiphanes, his wife Cleopatra held the regency for her young son, Ptolemy Philometor, and preserved peace with Syria till she died, B.C. 173. The government then fell into unworthy hands, and an attempt was made to recover Syria. Comp. 2 Macc. 4:21. Antiochus Epiphanes seems to have made the claim a pretext for invading Egypt. The generals of Ptolemy were defeated near Pelusium, probably at the close of B.C. 171, 1 Macc. 1:16 ff; and in the next year Antiochus, having secured the person of the young king, reduced almost the whole of Egypt. Comp. 2 Macc. 5:1. Meanwhile Ptolemy Euergetes II., the younger brother of Ptolemy Philometor, assumed the supreme power at Alexandris; and Antiochus, under the pretext of recovering the crown for Philometor, besieged Alexandria in B.C. 169. By this time, however, his selfish designs were apparent: the brothers were reconciled, and Antiochus was obliged to acquiesce for the time in the arrangement which they made. But while doing so he prepared for another invasion of Egypt, and was already approaching Alexandria when he was met by the Roman embassy led by C. Popillius Laenas, who, in the name of the Roman senate insisted on his immediate retreat (B.C.168), a command which the late victory at Pydna made it impossible to disobey. These campaigns, which are intimately connected with the visits of Antiochus to Jerusalem in B.C. 170, 168, are briefly described in (Daniel 11:25,30) The whole of Syria was afterward subdued by Ptolemy, and he was crowned at Antioch king of Egypt and Asia. 1 Macc. 11:13. Alexander, a rival claimant, attempted to secure the crown, but was defeated and afterward put to death by Ptolemy. But the latter did not long enjoy his success. He fell from his horse in the battle and died within a few days. 1 Macc. 11:18. Ptolemy Philometor is the last king of Egypt who is noticed in sacred history, and his reign was marked also by the erection of the temple at Leontopolis. Ptolemais

[Accho] Ptolemee, Or Ptolemeus

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"The son of Dorymenes," 1 Macc. 3:38; 2 Macc. 4:45; comp. Polyb. v, 61, a courtier who possessed great influence with Antiochus Epiphanes. •

•The son of Agesarchus, a Megalopolitan, surnamed Macron, 2 Macc. 10:12, who was governor of Cyprus during the minority of Ptolemy Philometor. He afterward deserted the Egyptian service to join Antiochus Epiphanes. He stood in the favor of Antiochus, and received from him the government of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria. 2 Macc 8:8; 10:11,12. On the accession of Antiochus Eupator his conciliatory policy toward the Jews brought him into suspicion at court. He was deprived of his government, and in consequence of this disgrace he poisoned himself, cir. B.C. 164. 2 Macc. 10:13. •The son of Abuhus, who married the daughter of Simon the Maccabee. He was a man of great wealth, and being invested with the government of the district of Jericho, formed the design of usurping the sovereignty of Judea. Pua

properly Puvvah. Phuvah the son of Issachar. (Numbers 26:23) (B.C. 1452.) Puah

(splendid). •The father of Tola, a man of the tribe of Issachar and judge of Israel after Abimelech. (Judges 10:1) (B.C. 1211.) •The son of Issachar, (1 Chronicles 7:1) elsewhere called Phuvah and Pua. •One of the two midwives to whom Pharaoh gave instructions to kill the Hebrew male children at their birth. (Exodus 1:15) (B.C. 1571.) Publican

The class designated by this word in the New Testament were employed as collectors of the Roman revenue. The Roman senate farmed the vectigalia (direct taxes) and the portorin (customs) to capitalists who undertook to pay a given sum into the treasury (in publicum), and so received the name of publicani . Contracts of this kind fell naturally into the hands of the equites, as the richest class of Romans. They appointed managers, under whom were the portitores, the actual custom-house officers, who examined each bale of goods, exported or imported, assessed its value more or less arbitrarily, wrote out the ticket, and enforced payment. The latter were commonly natives of the province in which they were stationed as being brought daily into contact with all classes of the population. The name pubicani was used popularly, and in the New Testament exclusively, of the portitores . The system was essentially a vicious one. The portitores were encouraged in the most vexatious or fraudulent exactions and a remedy was all but impossible. They overcharged whenever they had an opportunity, (Luke 3:13) they brought false charges of smuggling in the hope of extorting hush-money (Luke 19:8) they detained and opened letters on mere suspicion. It was the basest of all livelihoods. All this was enough to bring the class into ill favor everywhere. In Judea and Galilee there were special circumstances of aggravation. The employment brought out all the besetting vices of the Jewish character. The strong feeling of many Jews as to the absolute unlawfulness of paying tribute at all made matters worse. The scribes who discussed the question, (Matthew 22:15) for the most part answered it in the negative. In addition to their other faults, accordingly, the publicans of the New Testament were regarded as traitors and apostates, defiled by their frequent intercourse with the heathen, willing tools of the oppressor. The class thus practically excommunicated furnished some of the earliest disciples both of the Baptist

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and of our Lord. The position of Zacchaeus as a "chief among the publicans," (Luke 19:2) implies a gradation of some kind among the persons thus employed. Publius

the chief man—probably the governor-of Melita, who received and lodged St. Paul and his companions on the occasion of their being shipwrecked off that island. (Acts 28:7) (A.D.55.) Pudens

(modest), a Christian friend of Timothy at Rome. (2 Timothy 4:21) (A.D. 84.) According to legend he was the host of St. Peter and friend of St. Paul. and was martyred under Nero. Puhites, The

According to (1 Chronicles 2:53) the "Puhites" or "Puthites" belonged to the families of Kirjath-jearim. Pul

an Assyrian king, and the first Assyrian monarch mentioned in Scripture. He made an expedition against Menahem, king of Israel, about B.C. 770. (2 Kings 15:19)

(lord), a country or nation mentioned in (Isaiah 66:19) It is spoken of with distant nations, and is supposed by some to represent the island Philae in Egypt, and by others Libya. Pulse

(seeds) usually means peas, beans and the seeds that grow in pods. In the Authorized Version it occurs only in (Lamentations 1:12,16) as the translation of words the literal meaning of which is "seeds" of any kind. Probably the term denotes uncooked grain of any kind, as barley wheat, millet, vetches, etc. Punishments

The earliest theory of punishment current among mankind is doubtless the one of simple retaliation, "blood for blood." Viewed historically, the first case of punishment for crime mentioned in Scripture, next to the Fall itself, is that of Cain, the first murderer. That death was regarded as the fitting punishment for murder appears plain from the remark of Lamech. (Genesis 4:24) In the post-diluvian code, if we may so call it, retribution by the hand of man, even in the case of an offending animal, for blood shed, is clearly laid dawn. (Genesis 9:5,6) Passing onward to Mosaic times, we find the sentence of capital punishment, in the case of murder, plainly laid down in the law. The murderer was to be put to death, even if he should have taken refuge at God's altar or in a refuge city, and the same principle was to be carried out even in the case of an animal. Offences punished with death.— I. The following offences also are mentioned in the law as liable to the punishment of death: •Striking, or even reviling, a parent. (Exodus 21:15,17) •Blasphemy. (Leviticus 24:14,16,23) •Sabbath-breaking. (Exodus 31:14; 35:2; Numbers 15:32-36) •Witchcraft, and false pretension to prophecy. (Exodus 22:18; Leviticus 20:27; 13:5; 18:20) •Adultery. (Leviticus 20:10; 22:22) •Unchastity. (Leviticus 21:9; 22:21,23) •Rape. (22:25) •Incestuous and unnatural connections. (Exodus 22:19; Leviticus 20:11,14,16) •Manstealing. (Exodus 21:16; 24:7) •Idolatry, actual or virtual, in any shape. (Leviticus 20:2; 13:8,10,15; 17:2-7) see Josh 7:1 ... and Josh 22:20 and Numb 25:8

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•False witness in certain cases. (19:16,19) II. But there is a large number of offences, some of them included in this list, which are named in the law as involving the,penalty of "cutting off from the people. On the meaning of this expression some controversy has arisen. There are altogether thirty six or thirty seven cases in the Pentateuch in which this formula is used. We may perhaps conclude that the primary meaning of "cutting off" is a sentence of death to be executed in some cases without remission, but in others voidable— (1) by immediate atonement on the offender's part; (2) by direct interposition of the Almighty i.e., a sentence of death always "regarded," but not always executed. Kinds of punishments .—Punishments are twofold, Capital and Secondary. I. Capital. (A) The following only are prescribed by the law: •Stoning, which was the ordinary mode of execution. (Exodus 17:4; Luke 20:6; John 10:31; Acts 14:5) In the case of idolatry, and it may be presumed in other cases also, the witnesses, of whom there were to be at least two, were required to cast the first stone. (13:9; Acts 7:58) •Hanging is mentioned as a distinct punishment. (Numbers 25:4; 2 Samuel 21:6,9) •Burning, in pre-Mosaic times, was the punishment for unchastity. (Genesis 38:24) Under the law it was ordered in the case of a priest's daughter (Leviticus 21:9) •Death by the sword or spear is named in the law, (Exodus 19:13; 32:27; Numbers 25:7) and it occurs frequently in regal and post-Babylonian times. (1 Kings 2:25,34; 19:1; 2 Chronicles 21:4) etc. •Strangling is said by the rabbis to have been regarded as the most common but least severe of the capital punishments, and to have been performed by immersing the convict in clay or mud, and then strangling him by a cloth twisted round the neck. (B) Besides these ordinary capital punishments, we read of others, either of foreign introduction or of an irregular kind. Among the former •Crucifixion is treated elsewhere. •Drowning, though not ordered under the law, was practiced at Rome, and is said by St. Jerome to have been in use among the Jews. •Sawing asunder or crushing beneath iron instruments. (2 Samuel 12:31) and perhaps (Proverbs 20:26; Hebrews 11:37) •Pounding in a mortar, or beating to death, is alluded to in (Proverbs 27:22) but not as a legal punishment, and cases are described. 2 Macc. 6:28,30. •Precipitation, attempted in the case of our Lord at Nazareth, and carried out in that of captives from the Edomites, and of St. James, who is said to have been cast from "the pinnacle" of the temple. Criminals executed by law were burned outside the city gates, and heaps of stones were flung upon their graves. (Joshua 7:25,26; 2 Samuel 18:17; Jeremiah 22:19) II. Of secondary punishments among the Jews, the original Principles were, •Retaliation, "eye for eye," etc. (Exodus 21:24,25) •Compensation, Identical (restitution)or analogous payment for loss of time or of power. (Exodus 21:18-36; Leviticus 24:18-21; 19:21) Slander against a wife's honor was to be compensated to her parents by a fine of one hundred shekels, and the traducer himself to be punished with stripes (22:18,19) •Stripes, whose number was not to exceed forty, (25:3) whence the Jews took care not to exceed thirty-nine. (2 Corinthians 11:24) •Scourging with thorns is mentioned (Judges 8:16) The stocks are mentioned (Jeremiah 20:2) passing through fire, (2 Samuel 12:31) mutilation, (Judges 1:6) 2 Macc. 7:4, and see (2 Samuel

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4:12) plucking out hair, (Isaiah 50:6) in later times, imprisonment and confiscation or exile. (Ezra 7:26; Jeremiah 37:15; 38:6; Acts 4:3; 5:18; 12:4) Punites, The

the descendants of Pua, or Puvah, the son of Issachar. (Numbers 26:23) Punon

(darkness) one of the halting-places of the Israelite host during the last portion of the wandering. (Numbers 33:42,43) By Eusebius and Jerome, it is identified with Phaeno, which contained the copper-mines so well known at that period, and was situated between Petra and Zoar. Purification

in its legal and technical sense, is applied to the ritual observances whereby an Israelite was formally absolved from the taint of uncleanness. The essence of purification, in all eases, consisted in the use of water, whether by way of ablution or aspersion; but in the majora delicta of legal uncleanness, sacrifices of various kinds were added and the ceremonies throughout bore an expiatory character. Ablution of the person and of the clothes was required in the cases mentioned in (Leviticus 15:18; 11:25,40; 15:18,17) In cases of childbirth the sacrifice was increased to a lamb of the first year, with a pigeon or turtle-dove. (Leviticus 12:8) The ceremonies of purification required in cases of contact with a corpse or a grave are detailed in (Numbers 19:1) ... The purification of the leper was a yet more formal proceeding, and indicated the highest pitch of uncleanness. The rites are described in (Leviticus 14:4-32) The necessity of purification was extended in the post-Babylonian Period to a variety of unauthorized cases. Cups and pots and brazen vessels were washed as a matter of ritual observance. (Mark 7:4) The washing of the hands before meals was conducted in a formal manner. (Mark 7:3) What play have been the specific causes of uncleanness in those who came up to purify themselves before the Passover, (John 11:55) or in those who had taken upon themselves the Nazarites' vow, (Acts 21:24,26) we are not informed. In conclusion it may he observed that the distinctive feature. In the Mosaic rites of purification is their expiatory character. The idea of uncleanness was not peculiar to the Jew; but with all other nations simple ablution sufficed: no sacrifices were demanded. The Jew alone was taught by the use of expiatory offerings to discern to its fullest extent the connection between the outward sign and the inward fount of impurity. Purim

(lots), the annual festival instituted to commemorate the preservation of the Jews in Persia from the massacre with which they were threatened through the machinations of Haman. (Esther 9:1) ... It was probably called Purim by the Jews in irony. Their great enemy Haman appears to have been very superstitious, and much given to casting lots. (Esther 3:7) They gave the name. Purim, or "Lots," to the commemorative festival because he had thrown lots to ascertain what day would be suspicious for him to carry into effect the bloody decree which the king had issued at his instance. (Esther 9:24) The festival lasted two days, and was regularly observed on the 14th and 15th of Adar. According to modern custom, as soon as the stars begin to appear, when the 14th of the month has commenced, candles are lighted up in token of rejoicing, and the people assemble in the synagogue. After a short prayer and thanksgiving, the reading of the book of Esther commences. The book is written in a peculiar manner, on a roll called "the Roll" (Megillah). When the reader comes to the name of Haman, the congregation cry out, "May his name be blotted out," or, "Let the name of the ungodly perish." When the Megillah is read through, the whole congregation exclaim, "Cursed be Haman; blessed be Mordecai; cursed be Zoresh (the wife of Haman); blessed be Esther; cursed be all idolaters; blessed be all Israelites, and blessed be Harbonah who hanged

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Haman." In the morning service in the synagogue, on the 14th, after the prayers, the passage is read from the law, (Exodus 17:8-16) which relates the destruction of the Amalekites, the people of Agag, (1 Samuel 15:8) the supposed ancestor of Haman. (Esther 3:1) The Megillah is then read again in the same manner. The 14th of Adar, as the very day of the deliverance of the Jews, is more solemnly kept than the 13th; but when the service in the synagogue is over, all give themselves up to merry making. Purosh

(flea). The descendants of Parosh, in number 2172, returned front Babylon with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:3; Nehemiah 7:8) Another detachment of 150 males, with Zechariah at their head, accompanied Ezra. (Ezra 8:3) They assisted in the building of the well of Jerusalem, (Nehemiah 3:26) and signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:14) (B.C. before 535-445.) Purse

a bag for money. The Hebrews, when on a journey, were provided with a bag, in which they carried their money, (Genesis 42:35; Proverbs 1:14; 7:20; Isaiah 46:6) and, if they were merchants, also their weights. (25:13; Micah 6:11) This bag is described in the New Testament by the terms balantion (bag) (Luke 10:4; 12:33; 22:35,38) and glossokomon (originally the bag in which musicians carried the mouth-pieces of their Instruments). (John 12:6; 13:29) The girdle also served as a purse. (Matthew 10:9; Mark 6:8) Ladies wore ornamental purses. (Isaiah 3:24) Put

(1 Chronicles 1:8; Nahum 3:9) [Phut, Put] Puteoli

(sulphurous springs), the great landing-place of travelers to Italy from the Levant, and the harbor to which the Alexandrian corn-ships brought their cargoes. (Acts 27:13) The celebrated bay which is now the Bay of Naples was then called "Sinus Puteolanus." The city was at the northeastern angle of the bay. The name Puteoli arose from the strong mineral springs which are characteristic of the place. It was a favorite watering-place of the Romans its hot springs being considered efficacious for cure of various diseases. Here also ships usually discharged their passengers and cargoes, partly to avoid doubling the promontory of Circeium and partly because there was no commodious harbor nearer to Rome. Hence the ship in which Paul was conveyed from Melita landed the prisoners at this place, where the apostle stayed a week. (Acts 28:13,14)—Whitney . The associations of Puteoli with historical personages are very numerous. Scipio sailed from this place to Spain; Cicero had a villa in the neighborhood; here Nero planned the murder of his mother; Vespasian gave to this city peculiar privileges; and here Adrian was buried. In the fifth century it was ravaged by both Alaric and Genseric, and it never afterward recovered its former eminence. It is now a fourth-rate Italian town, still retaining the name of Pozzuoli . The remains of Puteoli are worthy of mention. Among them are the aqueduct the reservoirs, portions (probably) of the baths the great amphitheatre and the building called the temple of Serapis. No Roman harbor has left as solid a memorial of itself as this one, at which St. Paul landed in Italy. Putiel

One of the daughters of Putiel was wife of Eleazar the son of Aaron, and mother of Phinehas. (Exodus 6:25) (B.C. before 1481.) Pygarg

occurs, (14:5) in the list of clean animals as the rendering of the Heb. dishon, the name apparently of one species of antelope, though it is by no means easy to identify it.

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Pyrrhus

the father of Sopater of Berea. (Acts 20:4) in Revised Version. (A.D. 55.)

Quails

There can be no doubt that the Hebrew word in the Pentateuch (Exodus 16:13; Numbers 11:31,32) and in the 105th Psalm, denotes the common quail, Coturnix dactylisonans . (The enormous quantity of quails taken by the Israelites has its parallel in modern times. Pliny states that they sometimes alight on vessels in the Mediterranean and sink them. Colenel Sykes states that 160,000 quails have been netted in one season on the island of Capri.—ED.) The expression "as it were two cubits (high) upon the face of the earth," (Numbers 11:31) refers probably to the height at which the quails flew above the ground, in their exhausted condition from their long flight. As to the enormous quantities which the least-successful Israelite is said to have taken viz. "ten homers" (i.e. eighty bushels) in the space of a night and two days, there is every reason for believing that the "homers here spoken of do not denote strictly the measure of that name but simply "a heap." The Israelites would have had little difficulty in capturing large quantities of these birds as they are known to arrive at places sometimes so completely exhausted by their flight as to be readily taken, not in nets only, but by the hand. They "spread the quails round about the camp;" this was for the purpose of drying them. The Egyptians similarly prepared these birds. The expression "quails from the sea," (Numbers 11:31) must not be restricted to denote that the birds came from the sea, as their starting-point, but it must be taken to show the direction from which they were coming. The quails were at the time of the event narrated in the sacred writings, on their spring journey of migration northward, It is interesting to note the time specified: "it was at even" that they began to arrive; and they no doubt continued to come all night. Many observers have recorded that the quail migrates by night. Quartus

(fourth), a Christian of Corinth, (Romans 16:23) said to have been one of the seventy disciples, and afterward bishop of Berytus. (A.D. about 50.) Quaternion

a military term signifying a guard of four soldiers, two of whom were attached to the person of a prisoner, while the other two kept watch outside the door of his cell. (Acts 12:4) Queen

This title is properly applied to the queen-mother, since in an Oriental household it is not the wife but the mother of the master who exercises the highest authority. Strange as such an arrangement at sight appears, it is one of the inevitable results of polygamy. An illustration of the queen-mother's influence is given in (1 Kings 2:19) ff. The term is applied to Maachah, (1 Kings 15:13; 2 Chronicles 16:16) and to Jezetiel, (2 Kings 10:13) and to the mother of Jehoiachin or Jeconiah, (Jeremiah 13:18) compare 2Kin 24:12; Jere 29:2 Queen Of Heaven

(Jeremiah 7:18; 45:17,18,19,25) is the moon Ashtaroth or Astarte to whom worshiped as Hebrew women offered cakes in the streets of Jerusalem. Quicksands, The

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more properly THE Syrtis, The, (Acts 27:17) the broad a deep bight on the north African coast between Carthage and Cyrene. There were properly two Syrtes—the eastern or larger, now called the Gulf of Sidra, and the western or smaller, now the Gulf of Cabes . It is the former to which our attention is directed in this passage of the Acts. Quiver

a box made for the purpose of holding arrows. (Genesis 27:3) There is nothing in the Bible to indicate either its form or material, or in what way it was carried.

Raamah

(horse's mane), a son of Cush and father of the Cushite Sheba and Dedan. (Genesis 10:7) (B.C. after 2513.) The tribe of Raamah became afterward renowned as traders. (Ezekiel 27:22) They were settled on the Persian Gulf. Raamiah

(thunder of Jehovah), one of the chiefs who returned with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 7:7) In (Ezra 2:2) he is called Reelaiah. (B.C. 445.) Raamses

(Exodus 1:11) [Rameses, Or Raamses] Rabbah

(great). •A very strong place on the east of the Jordan, and the chief city of the Ammonites. In five passages— (3:11; 2 Samuel 12:26; 17:27; Jeremiah 49:2; Ezekiel 21:20)—it is styled at length Rabbath of the Ammonites, or the children of Ammon; but elsewhere, (Joshua 13:25; 2 Samuel 11:1; 12:27,29; 1 Chronicles 20:1; Jeremiah 49:3) simply Rabbah. When first named it is mentioned as containing the bed or sarcophagus of the giant Og. (3:11) David sent Joab to besiege Rabbah. (2 Samuel 11:1,17) etc. Joab succeeded in capturing a portion of the place—the "city of waters," that is, the lower town so called from its containing the perennial stream which rises in and still flows through it. The citadel still remained to be taken, but this was secured shortly after David's arrival. (2 Samuel 12:26-31) Long after, at the date of the invasion of Nebuchadnezzar, (Jeremiah 49:2,3) it had walls and palaces. It is named in such terms as to imply that it was of equal importance with Jerusalem. (Ezekiel 21:20) From Ptolemy Philadelphus (B.C. 285-247) it received the name of Philadelphia. It was one of the cities of the Decapolis, and became the seat of a Christian bishop. Its ruins, which are considerable are found at Ammon about 22 miles from the Jordan. It lies in a valley which is a branch, or perhaps the main course, of the Wady Zerka usually identified with the Jabbok. The public buildings are said to be Roman, except the citadel, which is described as of large square stones put together without cement, and which is probably more ancient than the rest. •A city of Judah named with Kirjath-jearim in (Joshua 15:60) only. No trace of its existence has yet been discovered. Rabbath Of The Children Of Ammon

and Rabbath of the Ammonites, [See RABBATH] Rabbathmoab

[Ar]

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Rabbi

a title of respect signifying master, teacher, given by the Jews to their doctors and teachers, and often addressed to our Lord. (Matthew 23:7,8; 26:25,49; Mark 9:6; 11:21; 14:45; John 1:38,49; 3:2,26; 4:31; 6:25; 9:2; 11:8) Another form of the title was Rabboni. (John 20:16) The titles were used with different degrees of honor; the lowest being rab, master then rabbi, my master ; next rabban, our master ; and greatest of all, Rabboni, my great master . Rabbith

(multitude) a town in the territory, perhaps on the boundary, of Issachar. (Joshua 18:20) only. Rabboni

(John 30:18) [Rabbi] Rabmag

(Jeremiah 39:3,13) a title borne by Nergal-sharezer, probably identical with the king called by the Greeks Neriglissar. [NERGAL-SHAREZER] (it probably means chief of the magi ; at all events it was "an office of great power and dignity at the Babylonian court, and probably gave its possessor special facilities for gaining the throne.") Rabsaris

(chief of the eunuchs). •An officer of the king of Assyria sent up with Tartan and Rabshakeh against Jerusalem in the time of Hezekiah. (2 Kings 18:17) (B.C. 713.) •One of the princes of Nebuchadnezzar, who was present at the capture of Jerusalem, B.C. 588. (Jeremiah 39:3,13) Rabsaris is probably rather the name of an office than of an individual. Rabshakeh

(chief cupbearer), (2 Kings 19:1; Isaiah 36:1; Isaiah 37:1) ... one of the officers of the king of Assyria sent against Jerusalem in the reign of Hezekiah. [Hezekiah] (B.C. 713.) The English version takes Rabshakeh as the name of a person; but it is more probably the name of the office which he held at the court, that of chief cupbearer. Raca

a term of reproach derived from the Chaldee reka, worthless. ("Raca denotes a certain looseness of life and manners, while 'fool,' in the same passage, means a downright wicked and reprobate person.") (Matthew 5:22) Race

[Games] Rachab

Rahab the harlot. (Matthew 1:15) Rachal

(trade), (1 Samuel 30:29) a town in the southern part of the tribe of Judah, one of the towns to which David sent presents out of the spoil of the Amalekites. Rachel

(ewe, or sheep), the younger of the daughters of Laban, the wife of Jacob (B.C. 1753) and mother of Joseph and Benjamin. The incidents of her life may be found in Genesis29-33, 35. The story of Jacob and Rachel has always had a peculiar interest. The beauty of Rachel, Jacob's deep love and long servitude for her, their marriage, and Rachel's death on giving birth to Benjamin, with Jacob's grief at her loss, (Genesis 48:7) makes a touching tale. Yet from what is related to us concerning her character there does not seem much to claim any high degree of admiration and

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esteem. She appears to have shared all the duplicity and falsehood of her family. See, for instance, Rachel's stealing her father's images, and the ready dexterity and presence of mind with which she concealed her theft. (Genesis 31:1) ... "Rachel died and was buried on the way to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem. (B.C. 1729.) And Jacob set a pillar upon her grave; that is the pillar of Rachel's grave unto this day." (Genesis 35:19,20) The site of Rachel's tomb, "on the way to Bethlehem," "a little way to come to Ephrath," "in the border of Benjamin," never been questioned. It Is about two miles south of Jerusalem and one mile north of Bethlehem. Raddai

(trampling), one of David's brothers, fifth son of Jesse. (1 Chronicles 2:14) Ragau

one of the ancestors of our Lord, son of Peleg. (Luke 3:35) He is the same person with Reu, son of Peleg. Rages

an important city in northeastern Media, where that country bordered its ruins, still known by the name of Rhey, lie about five miles southeast of Teheran. Raguel, Or Reuel

(friend of God). •Probably the same as Jethro. [Jethro; Hobab] (B.C. 1490.) •A pious Jew of "Ecbatane, a of Media," father of Sara, the wife of Tobias. Tob. 3:7,17, etc. Rahab

a poetical name of Egypt, (Psalms 89:10; Isaiah 51:9) signifying "fierceness, insolence, pride." Rahab, as a name of Egypt, occurs once only without reference to the exodus: this is in (Psalms 87:4) In (Isaiah 30:7) the name is alluded to. Rahab, Or Rachab

(wide), a celebrated woman of Jericho who received the spies sent by Joshua to spy out the land, hid them in her house from the pursuit of her countrymen, was saved with all her family when the Israelites sacked the city, and became the wife of Salmon and the ancestress of the Messiah. (Joshua 2:1; Matthew 1:5) (B.C. 1450.) She was a "harlot", and probably combined the trade of lodging-keeper for wayfaring men. Her reception of the spies, the artifice by which she concealed them from the king: their escape, and the saving of Rahab and her family at the capture of the city in accordance with their promise, are fold in the narrative of (Joshua 2:1) ... As regards Rahab herself, she probably repented, and we learn from (Matthew 1:5) that she became the wife of Salmon the son of Naasson, and the mother of Boaz, Jesse's grandfather. The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews tells us that "by faith the harlot Rahab perished not with them that believed not, when she had received the spies with peace," (Hebrews 11:31) and St. James fortifies his doctrine of justification by works by asking, "Was not Rahab the harlot justified by works, when she had received the messengers, and had sent them out another way?" (James 2:25) Raham

(belly). In the genealogy of the descendants of Caleb the son of Hezron, (1 Chronicles 2:44) Raham is described as the son of Shema and father of Jorkoam. Rahel

the original form in our Authorized Version of the now familiar Rachel. (Jeremiah 31:15) Rain

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

In the Bible "early rain" signifies the rain of the autumn, (11:14) and "latter rain" the rain of spring. (Proverbs 16:1,5) For six months in the year, from May to October, no rain falls, the whole land becomes dry, parched and brown. The autumnal rains are eagerly looked for, to prepare the earth for the reception of the seed. These, the early rains, commence about the latter end of October continuing through November and December. January and February are the coldest months, and snow falls, sometimes to the depth of a foot or more, at Jerusalem, but it does not lie long; it is very seldom seen along the coast and in the low plains. Rain continues to fall more or less during the month of March it is very rare in April. Robinson observes that there are not, at the present day, "any particular periods of rain or succession of showers which might be regarded as distinct rainy seasons. The whole period from October to March now constitutes only one continued season of rain, without any regularly-intervening term of prolonged fine weather. Unless therefore, there has been some change in the climate, the early and the latter rains, for which the husbandman waited with longing, seem rather to hare implied the first showers of autumn—which revived the parched and thirsty soil and prepared it for the seed—and the later showers of spring, which continued to refresh and forward both the ripening crops and the vernal products of the fields." (James 5:7; Proverbs 16:15) Rainbow

the token of the covenant which God made with Noah when he came forth from the ark that the waters should no more become a flood to destroy all flesh. The right interpretation of (Genesis 9:13) seems to be that God took the rainbow, which had hitherto been but a beautiful object shining in the heavens when the sun's rays fell on falling rain, and consecrated it as the sign of his love and the witness of his promise. Ecclus. 43:11. The rainbow is a symbol of God's faithfulness and mercy. In the "rainbow around the throne," (Revelation 4:3) is seen the symbol of hope and the bright emblem of mercy and love, all the more true as a symbol because it is reflected from the storm itself. Raisins

[Vine] Rakem

(flower garden), a descendant of Machir the son of Manasseh. (1 Chronicles 7:16) (B.C. before 1451.) Rakkath

(shore), a fortified city in the tribe of Naphtali. (Joshua 19:35) It was on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, not far from the warm baths of Tiberias. Rakkon

(the temple) (of the head), a well-watered place in the inheritance of Dan, not fur from Joppa. (Joshua 19:46) Ram

(high, exalted). •A son of Hezron and the father of Ammin-adab, born in Egypt after Jacob's migration there. (Ruth 4:19) (B.C. 1706.) In (Matthew 1:3,4) and Luke 3:33 He is called Aram in the Authorized Version, but RAM in the Revised Version of (Matthew 1:3,4) and Arni in the Revised Version of (Luke 3:33) •The first-born of Jerahmeel, and therefore nephew of the preceding. (1 Chronicles 3:25,27) (B.C. after 1706.)

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•One of the kindred of Elihu. (Job 32:2) Ewald identified this Ram with Aram in (Genesis 22:21) [See BATTERING-RAM] Rama

(Matthew 2:15) referring to (Jeremiah 31:15) It is the Greek form of Ramah. Ramah

(a hill). This is the name of several places in the holy land. •One of the cities of the allotment of Benjamin. (Joshua 18:25) Its site is at er-Ram, about five miles from Jerusalem, and near to Gibeah. (Judges 4:5; 19:13; 1 Samuel 22:6) Its people returned after the captivity. (Ezra 2:26; Nehemiah 7:30) •The home of Elkanah, Samuel's father, (1 Samuel 1:19; 2:11) the birthplace of Samuel himself, his home and official residence, the site of his altar ch. (1 Samuel 7:17; 8:4; 15:34; 16:13; 19:18) and finally his burial-place, ch. (1 Samuel 25:1; 28:3) It is a contracted form of Ramathaim-zophim. All that is directly said as to its situation is that it was in Mount Ephraim, (1 Samuel 1:1) a district without defined boundaries, The position of Ramah is a much-disputed question. Tradition, however places the residence of Samuel on the lofty and remarkable eminence of Neby Samwil which rises four miles to the northwest of Jerusalem. Since the days of Arcult the tradition appears to have been continuous. Here, then, we are inclined in the present state of the evidence, to place the Ramah of Samuel. •One of the nineteen fortified places of Naphtali. (Joshua 19:36) Dr. Robinson has discovered a Rameh northwest of the Sea of Galilee, about 8 miles east-south-east of Safed. •One of the landmarks on the boundary of Asher, (Joshua 19:29) apparently between Tyre and Zidon. Some place it 3 miles east of Tyre, others 10 miles off and east-southeast of the same city. •By this name in (2 Kings 8:29) and 2Chr 22:6 only, is designated Ramoth-gilead. •A place mentioned in the catalogue of those reinhabited by the Benjamites after their return from the captivity. (Nehemiah 11:33) Ramath Of The South

one of the towns at the extreme south limit of Simeon. (Joshua 19:8) It is in all probability the same place as south Ramoth. (1 Samuel 30:27) Ramathaimzophim

(the two heights of the watchers). [Ramah, 2] Ramathite, The

Shimei the Ramathite, i.e. a native of Ramah, had charge of the royal vineyards of King David. (1 Chronicles 27:27) (B.C. 1050.) Ramathlehi

(hill of the jawbone, or hill of Lehi), the name bestowed by Samson on the scene of his slaughter of the thousand Philistines with the jaw bone, (Judges 15:17) a place by the rock Elam, in western Judah of the Philistines. Ramathmizpeh

(high place of the watch-tower). [RAMOTH-GILEAD] Rameses, Or Raamses

(child of the sun), a city and district of lower Egypt. (Genesis 47:11; Exodus 12:37; Numbers 33:3,5) This land of Rameses either corresponds to the land of Goshen or was a district of it, more probably the former. The city was one of the two store-cities built for the Pharaoh who first oppressed the children of Israel. (Exodus 1:11) (It was probably the capital of Goshen and situated in the

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

valley of the Pelusiac mouth of the Nile. McClintock and Strong say that its location is indicated by the present Tell Ramsis, a quadrangular mound near Belbeis. Dr. Brugsch thinks that it was at Zoan-Tanis, the modern San, on the Tanitic branch of the Nile, and that it was built or enlarged by Rameses II and made his capital.—ED.) Ramiah

one who had taken "a strange wife." (Ezra 10:25) Ramothgilead

(heights of Gilead), one of the great fastnesses on the east of jordan, and the key to an important district. (1 Kings 4:13) It was the city of refuge for the tribe of Gad, (4:43; Joshua 20:8; 21:38) and the residence of one of Solomon's commissariat officers. (1 Kings 4:13) During the invasion related in (1 Kings 15:20) or some subsequent incursion, this important place had seized by Ben-hadad I., king of Syria. The incidents of Ahab's expedition are well known. [Ahab] Later it was taken by Israel, and held in spite of all the efforts of Hazael who was now on the throne of Damascus, to regain it. (2 Kings 9:14) Henceforward Ramoth-gilead disappears from our view. Eusebius and Jerome specify the position of Ramoth as 15 miles from Philadelphia (Amman). It may correspond to the site bearing the name of Jel'ad, exactly identical with the ancient Hebrew Gilead, which is four or five miles north of es-Salt, 25 miles east of the Jordan and 13 miles south of the brook Jabbok. Rams Horns

[Cornet; Jubilee, The Year Of] Rapha

(tall). •Son of Binea, among the descendants of Saul. (1 Chronicles 8:37) •One of Benjamin's descendants. (1 Chronicles 8:2) Raphael

(the divine healer). According to Jewish tradition, Raphael was one of the four angels which stood round the throne of God—Michael, Uriel, Gabriel, Raphael. Raphon

a city of Gilead, 1 Macc. 15:37 perhaps identical with Raphana, which is mentioned by Pliny as one of the cities of the Decapolis. Raphu

the father of Palti, the Benjamite spy. (Numbers 13:9) (B.C. before 1490.) Raven

(black). The Hebrew oreb is applied to the several species of the crow family, a number of which are found in Palestine. The raven belongs to the order Insessores, family Corvidae . (It resembles the crow, but is larger weighing three pounds; its black color is more iridescent, and it is gifted with greater sagacity. "There is something weird and shrewd in the expression of the raven's countenance, a union of cunning and malignity which may have contributed to give it among widely-revered nations a reputation for preternatural knowledge." One writer says that the smell of death is so grateful to them that when in passing over sheep a tainted smell is perceptible, they cry and croak vehemently. It may be that in passing over a human habitation, if a sickly or cadaverous smell arises, they should make it known by their cries, and so has arisen the idea that the croaking of a raven is the premonition of death.—ED.) A raven was sent out by Noah from the ark. (Genesis 8:7) This bird was not allowed as food by the Mosaic law. (Leviticus 11:15) Elijah

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was cared for by ravens. (1 Kings 17:4,6) They are expressly mentioned as instances of God's protecting love and goodness. (Job 38:41; Luke 12:24) The raven's carnivorous habits, and especially his readiness to attack the eye, are alluded to in (Proverbs 30:17) To the fact of the raven being a common bird in Palestine, and to its habit of flying restlessly about in constant search for food to satisfy its voracious appetite, may perhaps be traced the reason for its being selected by our Lord and the inspired writers as the especial object of God's providing care. Razor

Besides other usages, the practice of shaving the head after the completion of a vow must have created among the Jews a necessity for the special trade of a barber. (Leviticus 14:8; Numbers 6:9,18; 8:7; Judges 13:5; Isaiah 7:20; Ezekiel 5:1; Acts 18:18) The instruments of his work were probably, as in modern times, the razor, the basin, the mirror, and perhaps also the scissors. See (2 Samuel 14:26) Like the Levites, the Egyptian priests were accustomed to shave their whole bodies. Reaia

a Reubenite, son of Micah, and apparently prince of his tribe. (1 Chronicles 5:5) The name is identical with Reai'ah. Reaiah

(seen of Jehovah). •A descendant of Shubal the son of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:2) •The children of Reaiah were a family of Nethinim who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:47; Nehemiah 7:50) (B.C. before 536.) Reba

(four), one of the five kings of the Midianites slain by the children of Israel when Balaam fell. (Numbers 31:8; Joshua 13:21) (B.C. 1450.) Rebecca

(Romans 9:10) only. [Rebekah] Rebekah

(ensnarer), daughter of Bethuel, (Genesis 22:23) and sister of Laban, married to Isaac. She is first presented to us in (Genesis 24:1) ... where the beautiful story of her marriage is related. (B.C. 1857.) For nineteen years she was childless: then Esau and Jacob were born, the younger being the mother's companion and favorite. (Genesis 25:19-28) Rebekah suggested the deceit that was practiced by Jacob on his blind father. She directed and aided him in carrying it out, foresaw the probable consequence of Esau's anger, and prevented it by moving Isaac to send Jacob away to Padan-aram, (Genesis 27:1) ... to her own kindred. (Genesis 29:12) Rebekah's beauty became at one time a source of danger to her husband. (Genesis 26:7) It has been conjectured that she died during Jacob's sojourn in Padan-aram. Rechab

(rider). •One of the two "captains of bands" whom Ish-bosheth took into his service, and who conspired to murder him. (2 Samuel 4:2) (B.C. 1046.) •The father of Malchiah, ruler of part of Beth-haccerem. (Nehemiah 3:14) (B.C. before 446.) •The father or ancestor of Jehonadab. (2 Kings 10:15,33; 1 Chronicles 2:65; Jeremiah 35:6-19) (B.C.before 882.) It was from this Rechab that the tribe of the Rechabites derived their name. In (1 Chronicles 2:55) the house of Rechab is identified with a section of the Kenites, a Midianitish tribe who came into Canaan with the Israelites, and retained their nomadic habits. The real founder

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of the tribe was Jehonadab. [Jehonadab] He and his people had all along been worshippers of Jehovah, circumcised, though not looked upon as belonging to Israel and probably therefore not considering themselves bound by the Mosaic law and ritual. The worship of Baal was offensive to them. Jonadab inaugurated a reformation and compelled a more rigid adherence than ever to the old Arab life. They were neither to drink wine, nor build houses, nor sow seed, nor plant nor have any vineyard. All their days they were to dwell in tents. (Jeremiah 35:6,7) This was to be the condition of their retaining a distinct tribal existence. For two centuries and a half they adhered faithfully to this rule. The invasion of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar, in B.C. 607, drove the Rechabites from their tents to Jerusalem, where they stood proof against temptation, and were specially blessed. (Jeremiah 35:2-19) There is much of interest in relation to the present condition of these people. Dr. Wolf reports that the Jews of Jerusalem and Yemen told him that he would find the Rechabites of Jere 35 living near Mecca, in the mountainous country northeast of Medina. When he came near Senaa he came in contact with a tribe, the Beni-Khabir, who identified themselves with the sons of Jehonadab. They claimed to number 60,000, to adhere to the old rules, and to be a fulfillment of the promise made to Jehonadab. Rechabites

[Rechab] Rechah

(uttermost part), probably a place in Judah—a village, Rashiah, three miles south of Jerusalem. Recorder

an officer of high rank in the Jewish state, exercising the functions, not simply of an annalist, but of chancellor or president of the privy council. In David's court the recorder appeal's among the high officers of his household. (2 Samuel 8:16; 20:24; 1 Chronicles 18:15) In Solomon's he is coupled with the three secretaries. (1 Kings 4:3) comp. 2Kin 18:18,37; 2Chr 34:8 Red Sea

Name.—The sea known to us as the Red Sea was by the Israelites called "the sea," (Exodus 14:2,9,16,21,28; 15:1,4,8,10,19; Joshua 24:6,7) and many other passages, and specially "the sea •

of Suph ." (Exodus 10:19; 13:18; 15:4,22; 23:31; Numbers 14:25) etc. This word signifies a sea-weed resembling wool, and such sea-weed is thrown up abundantly on the shores of the Red Sea; hence Brugsch calls it the sea of reeds or weeds . The color of the water is not red. Ebers says that it is of a lovely blue-green color, and named Red either from its red banks or from the Erythraeans, who were called the red people. •Physical description .—In extreme length the Red Sea stretches from the straits of Bab el-Mendeb (or rather Ras Bab el-Mendeb), 18 miles wide. in lat. 12 degrees 40' N., to the modern head of the Gulf of Suez, lat. 30 degrees N., a distance of 1450 miles. Its greatest width may be stated at about 210 miles. At Ras Mohammed, on the north, the Red Sea is split by the granitic peninsula of Sinai into two gulfs; the westernmost, or Gulf of Suez, is now about 150 miles in length, with an average width of about 20, though it contracts to less than 10 miles; the easternmost or Gulf of el-'Akabeh, is about 100 miles long, from the Straits of Tiran to the 'Akabeh, and 15 miles wide. The average depth of the Red Sea is from 2500 to 3500 feet, though in places it is 6000 feet deep. Journeying southward from Suez, on our left is the peninsula of Sinai; on the right is the desert coast of Egypt, of limestone formation like the greater part of the Nile valley in Egypt, the cliff's on the sea margin stretching landward in a great rocky plateau while more inland a chain

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of volcanic mountains, beginning about lat. 28 degrees 4' and running south, rear their lofty peaks at intervals above the limestone, generally about 15 miles distant. •Ancient limits.—The most important change in the Red Sea has been the drying up of its northern extremity, "the tongue of the Egyptian Sea." about the head of the gulf has risen and that near the Mediterranean become depressed. The head of the gulf has consequently retired gradually since the Christian era. Thus the prophecy of Isaiah has been fulfilled, (Isaiah 11:15; 10:5) the tongue of the Red Sea has dried up for a distance of at least 50 miles from its ancient head. An ancient canal conveyed the waters of the Nile to the Red Sea, flowing through the Wadi-t Tumeylat and irrigating with its system of water-channels a large extent of country. It was 62 Roman miles long, 54 feet wide and 7 feet deep. The drying up of the head of the gulf appears to have been one of the chief causes of the neglect and ruin of this canal. The country, for the distance above indicated, is now a desert of gravelly sand, with wide patches about the old sea-bottom, of rank marsh land, now called the "Bitter Lakes." At the northern extremity of this salt waste is a small lake, sometimes called the Lake of Heropolis; the lake is now Birket-et-Timsah "the lake of the crocodile," and is supposed to mark the ancient head of the gulf. The canal that connected this with the Nile was of Pharaonic origin. It was anciently known as the "Fossa Regum" and the "canal of Hero." The time at which the canal was extended, after the drying up of the head of the gulf, to the present head is uncertain, but it must have been late, and probably since the Mohammedan conquest. Traces of the ancient channel throughout its entire length to the vicinity of Bubastis exist at intervals in the present day. The land north of the ancient gulf is a plain of heavy sand, merging into marsh-land near the Mediterranean coast, and extending to Palestine. This region, including Wadi-t-Tumeylat, was probably the frontier land occupied in pact by the Israelites, and open to the incursions of the wild tribes of the Arabian desert. •Navigation.—The sea, from its dangers and sterile shores, is entirely destitute of boats. The coral of the Red Sea is remarkably abundant, and beautifully colored and variegated; but it forms so many reefs and islands along the shores that navigation is very dangerous, and the shores are chiefly barren rock and sand, and therefore very sparsely inhabited so that there are but three cities along the whole 1450 miles of its west coast—Suez, at the head, a city of 14,000 inhabitants; Sanakin, belonging to Soudan, of 10,000; and Massau, in Albyssinia, of 5000. Only two ports, Elath and Ezion-geber, are mentioned in the Bible. The earliest navigation of the Red Sea (passing by the pre-historical Phoenicians) is mentioned by Herodotus:—"Seostris (Rameses II.) was the first who passing the Arabian Gulf in a fleet of long vessels, reduced under his authority the inhabitants of the coast bordering the Erythrean Sea." Three centuries later, Solomon's navy was built "in Ezion-geber, which is beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea (Yam Suph), in the land of Edom." (1 Kings 9:20) The kingdom of Solomon extended as far as the Red Sea, upon which he possessed the harbors of Elath and Ezion-geber. [Elath, Eloth; EZION-GEBER] It is possible that the sea has retired here as at Suez, and that Ezion-geber is now dry land. Jehoshaphat also "made ships of Tharshish to go to Ophir for gold; but they went not; for the ships were broken at Ezion-geber." (1 Kings 22:48) The scene of this wreck has been supposed to be Edh-Dhahab. The fleets appear to have sailed about the autumnal equinox, and returned in December or the middle of January. The Red Sea, as it possessed for many centuries the most important sea-trade of the East contained ports of celebrity. The Heroopolite Gulf (Gulf of Suez) is of the chief interest; it was near to Goshen, it was the scene of the passage of the Red Sea, and it was the "tongue of the Egyptian Sea." It was also the seat of the Egyptian trade in this sea and to the Indian Ocean.

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

•Passage of the Red Sea .—The passage of the Red Sea was the crisis of the exodus. It is usual to suppose that the most northern place at which the Red Sea could have been crossed is the present head of the Gulf of Suez. This supposition depends upon the erroneous idea that in the time of Moses the gulf did not extend farther to the northward then at present. An examination of the country north of Suez has shown, however, that the sea has receded many miles. The old bed is indicated by the Birket-et Timsah, or "lake of the crocodile," and the more southern Bitter Lakes, the northernmost part of the former probably corresponding to the head of it the at the time of the exodus. It is necessary to endeavor to ascertain the route of the Israelites before we can attempt to discover where they crossed the sea. The point from which they started was Rameses, a place certain in the land of Goshen, which we identified with the Wadi-t-Tumeylat . They encamped at Succoth. At the end of the second day's journey the camping place was at Etham, "in the edge of the wilderness." (Exodus 13:20; Numbers 33:6) Here the Wadi-t-Tumeylat was probably left, as it is cultivable and terminates in the desert. At the end of the third day's march for each camping place seems to mark the close of a day's journey the Israelites encamped by the sea, place of this last encampment and that of the passage would be not very far from the Persepolitan monument at Pihahiroth. It appears that Migdol was behind Pi-hahiroth and on the other hand Baalzephon and the sea. From Pi-hahiroth the Israelites crossed the sea. This was not far from halfway between the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, where now it is dry land. The Muslims suppose Memphis to have been the city at which the Pharaoh of the exodus resided before that event occurred. From opposite Memphis a broad valley leads to the Red Sea. It is in part called the Wadi-t-Teeh, or "Valley of the Wandering." From it the traveller reaches the sea beneath the lofty Gebel-et-Takah, which rises in the north and shuts off all escape in that direction excepting by a narrow way along the seashore, which Pharaoh might have occupied. The sea here is broad and deep, as the narrative is generally held to imply. All the local features seem suited for a great event. The only points bearing on geography in the account of this event are that the sea was divided by an east wind. Whence we may reasonably infer that it was crossed from west to east, and that the whole Egyptian army perished, which shows that it must have been some miles broad. On the whole we may reasonably suppose about twelve miles as the smallest breadth of the sea. The narrative distinctly states that a path was made through the sea, and that the waters were a wall on either hand. The term "wall" does not appear to oblige us to suppose, as many have done, that the sea stood up like a cliff on either side, but should rather be considered to mean a barrier, as the former idea implies a seemingly needless addition to the miracle, while the latter seems to be not discordant with the language of the narrative. It was during the night that the Israelites crossed, and the Egyptians followed. In the morning watch, the last third or fourth of the night, or the period before sunrise Pharaoh's army was in full pursuit in the divided sea, and was there miraculously troubled, so that the Egyptians sought to flee. (Exodus 14:23-25) Then was Moses commanded again to stretch out his hand and the sea returned to its strength, and overwhelmed the Egyptians, of whom not one remained alive, Ibid. 26-28. (But on the whole it is becoming more probable that the place where the Israelites crossed "was near the town of Suez, on extensive shoals which run toward the southeast, in the direction of Ayim Musa (the Wells of Moses). The distance is about three miles at high tide. This is the most probable thee Near here Napoleon, deceived by the tidal wave, attempted to cross in 1799, and nearly met the fate of Pharaoh. But an army of 600,000 could of course never have crossed it without a miracle."—Schaff's Through Bible Lands . Several routes and places of crossing advocated by learned Egyptologists can be clearly seen by the accompanying

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maps. The latest theory is that which Brugsch-bey has lately revived that the word translated Red Sea is "Sea of Reeds or Weeds," and refers to the Serbonian bog in the northeastern part of Egypt, and that the Israelites crossed here instead of the Red Sea. "A gulf profound, as that Serbonian bog . . . where armies whole have sunk."—Milton. And among these armies that of Artarerxes, king of Persia, B.C. 350. But it is very difficult to make this agree with the Bible narrative, and if is the least satisfactory of all the theories.—ED.) Reed

Under this name may be noticed the following Hebrew words: •Agmon occurs in (Job 40:12,16; Isaiah 9:14) (Authorized Version "rush"). There can be no doubt that it denotes some aquatic reed-like plant, probably the Phragmitis communis, which, if it does not occur in Palestine and Egypt, is represented by a very closely-allied species, viz., the Arundo isiaca of Delisle. The drooping panicle of this plant will answer well to the "bowing down the head" of which Isaiah speaks. (Isaiah 58:5) •Gnome, translated "rush" and "bulrush" by the Authorized Version, without doubt denotes the celebrated paper-reed of the ancients, Papyrus antiquorum, which formerly was common in some parts of Egypt. The papyrus reed is not now found in Egypt; it grows however, in Syria. Dr. Hooker saw it on the banks of Lake Tiberias, a few miles north of the town. The papyrus plant has an angular stem from 3 to 6 feet high, though occasionally it grows to the height of 14 feet it has no leaves; the flowers are in very small spikelets, which grow on the thread-like flowering branchlets which form a bushy crown to each stem; (It was used for making paper, shoes, sails, ropes, mattresses, etc. The Greek name is Biblos, from which came our word Bible—book—because books were made of the papyrus paper. This paper was always expensive among the Greeks, being worth a dollar a sheet.—ED.) •Kaneh, a reed of any kind. Thus there are in general four kinds of reeds named in the Bible: (1) The water reed; No, 1 above. (2) A stronger reed, Arundo donax, the true reed of Egypt and Palestine, which grows 8 or 10 feet high, and is thicker than a man's thumb. It has a jointed stalk like the bamboo, and is very abundant on the Nile. (3) The writing reed, Arundo scriptoria, was used for making pens. (4) The papyrus; No. 2. Reelaiah

(bearer of Jehovah), one who went up with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:2) In (Nehemiah 7:7) he is called Raamiah. (B.C. 445.) Refiner

The refiner's art was essential to the working of the precious metals. It consisted in the separation of the dress from the pure ore, which was effected by reducing the metal to a fluid state by the application of heat, and by the aid of solvents, such as alkali, (Isaiah 1:25) or lead, Jere 6:29 Which, amalgamating with the dress, permitted the extraction of the unadulterated metal. The instruments required by the refiner were a crucible of furnace and a bellows or blow-pipe. The workman sat at his work, (Malachi 3:3) he was thus better enabled to watch the process, and let the metal run off at the proper moment. Refuges Cities Of

[CITIES OF REFUGE] CITIES OF REFUGE - 1019 Regem

(friend) a son of Jahdai. (1 Chronicles 2:47) Regemmelech

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

(friend of the king). The names of Sherezer and Regem-melech occur in an obscure passage of Zechariah. (Zechariah 7:2) They were sent on behalf of some of the captivity to make inquiries at the temple concerning fasting (B.C. 617.) Rehabiah

(enlarged by Jehovah), the only son of Eliezer the son of Moses. (1 Chronicles 23:17; 24:21; 26:25) (B.C. about 1455.) Rehob

The father of Hadadezer king of Zobah, whom David smote at the Euphrates. (2 Samuel 8:3,12) (B.C. before 1043.) •

•A Levite or family of Levites who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:11) (B.C. 410.) •The northern limit of the exploration of the spies. (Numbers 13:21) Robinson fixes the position of Rehob as not far from Tell el-Kady and Banias . •One of the towns allotted to Asher. (Joshua 19:28) •Asher contained another Rehob, (Joshua 19:30) but the situation of these towns is unknown. Rehoboam

(enlarger of the people), son of Solomon by the Ammonite princess Naamah, (1 Kings 14:21,31) and his successor. (1 Kings 11:43) Rehoboam selected Shechem as the place of his coronation (B.C. 975), probably as an act of concession to the Ephraimites. The people demanded a remission of the severe burdens imposed by Solomon, and Rehoboam, rejecting the advice of his father's counsellors, followed that of his young courtiers, and returned an insulting answer, which led to an open rebellion among the tribes, and he was compelled to fly to Jerusalem, Judah and Benjamin alone remaining true to him. Jeroboam was made king of the northern tribes. [Jeroboam] An expedition to reconquer Israel was forbidden by the prophet Shemaiah, (1 Kings 12:21) still during Rehoboam's lifetime peaceful relations between Israel and Judah were never restored. (2 Chronicles 12:15; 1 Kings 14:30) In the fifth year of Rehoboam's reign the country was invaded by a host of Egyptians and other African nations under Shishak. Jerusalem itself was taken and Rehoboam had to purchase an ignominious peace by delivering up the treasures with which Solomon had adorned the temple and palace. The rest of Rehoboam's life was unmarked by any events of importance. He died B.C. 958, after a reign of 17 years, having ascended the throne B.C. 975, at the age of 41. (1 Kings 14:21; 2 Chronicles 12:13) He had 18 wives, 60 concubines, 28 sons and 60 daughters. Rehoboth

(wide places, i.e. streets). •The third of the series of wells dug by Isaac, (Genesis 26:22) in the Philistines' territory, lately identified as er-Ruheibeh, 16 miles south of Beersheba. •One of the four cities built by Asshur, or by Nimrod in Asshur, according as this difficult passage is translated. (Genesis 10:11) Nothing certain is known of its position. •The city of a certain Saul or Shaul, one of the early kings of the Edomites. (Genesis 36:37; 1 Chronicles 1:48) The affix "by the river" fixes the situation of Rehoboth as on the Euphrates. Rehum

(merciful). •One who went up from Babylon with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:2) (B.C. 536.) •"Rehum the chancellor." (Ezra 4:8,9,17,23) He was perhaps a kind of lieutenant-governor of the province under the king of Persia. (B.C. 535.)

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

•A Levite of the family of Bani, who assisted in rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem. (Nehemiah 3:17) (B.C. 445.) •One of the chief of the people, who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:25) (B.C. 410.) •A priestly family, or the head of a priestly house, who went up with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 12:3) (B.C. 536.) Rei

(friendly), a person mentioned (in (1 Kings 1:8) only) as having remained firm to David's cause when Adonijah rebelled. (B.C. 1015.) Reins

(i.e. kidneys). In the ancient system of physiology the kidneys were believed to be the seat of desire and longing, which accounts for their often being coupled with the heart. (Psalms 7:9; 26:2; Jeremiah 11:20; 17:10), etc. Rekem

one of the towns of the allotment of Benjamin. (Joshua 18:27) Its existing site is unknown. (variegation). •One of the five kings or chieftains of Midian slain by the Israelites. (Numbers 31:8; Joshua 13:21) •One of the four sons of Hebron, and father of Shammai. (1 Chronicles 2:43,44) Remaliah

(protected by Jehovah). The father of Pekah, captain of Pekahiah; king of Israel, who slew his master and usurped his throne. (2 Kings 15:25-37; 16:1,5; 2 Chronicles 28:6; Isaiah 7:1-9; 8:6) (B.C. 756.) Remeth

(height), one of the towns of Issachar. (Joshua 19:21) It is probably though not certainly, a distinct place from the RAMOTH of (1 Chronicles 6:73) Remmon

(pomegranate), a town in the allotment of Simeon, (Joshua 10:7) elsewhere accurately given in the Authorized Version as Rimmon. Remmonmethoar

a place which formed one of the landmarks of Zebulun. (Joshua 19:13) only. Methoar does not really form a part of the name, but should be translated (as in the margin of the Authorized Version) "Remmon which reaches to Neah." Dr. Robinson and Mr. Van Deuteronomy Velde place Rummaneh on the south border of the plain of Buttauf, three miles north-northeast of Seffurieh . Remphan

(Acts 7:43) and Chi'un, (Amos 5:26) have been supposed to be names of an idol worshipped secretly by the Israelites in the wilderness, difficulty has been occasioned by this corresponding occurrence of two names so wholly different in sound. The most reasonable opinion seems to be that Chiun was a Hebrew or Semitic name, and Remphan an Egyptian equivalent substituted by the LXX. This idol corresponded probably to Saturn or Molech. The mention of Chiun or Remphan as worshipped in the desert shows that this idolatry was, in part at least that of foreigners, and no doubt of those settled in lower Egypt. Rephael

(healed of God), son of Shemaiah, the first-born of Obed-edom. (1 Chronicles 26:7) (B.C. about 1015.)

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Rephah

a son of Ephraim, and ancestor of Joshua. (1 Chronicles 7:26) Rephaiah

(healed of Jehovah). •The sons of Rephaiah appear among the descendants of Zerubbabel in (1 Chronicles 3:21) •A Simeonite chieftain in the reign of Hezekiah. (1 Chronicles 4:42) (B.C. 727.) •Son of Tola the son of Issachar. (1 Chronicles 7:2) •Son of Binea, and descendant of Saul. (1 Chronicles 9:43) •The son of Hur, and ruler of a portion of Jerusalem. (Nehemiah 3:9) (B.C. 441.) Rephaim

[Giants] Rephaim, The Valley Of

(1 Samuel 5:18,22; 23:13; 1 Chronicles 11:15; 14:9; Isaiah 17:5) also in (Joshua 15:8) and Josh 18:16 It is translated in the Authorized Version "the valley of the giants," a spot which was the scene of some of David's most remarkable adventures. He twice encountered and defeated the Philistines there. (2 Samuel 5:17-25; 23:13) etc. Since the latter part of the sixteenth century the name has been attached to the upland plain which stretches south of Jerusalem and is crossed by the road to Bethlehem—the el Buk'ah of the modern Arabs. (This valley begins near the valley of Hinnom, southwest of Jerusalem extending toward Bethlehem. It is about a mile long, with hills on either side. This agrees with Josephus and is the generally-accepted location of this valley.—ED.) Tobler, however, in his last investigations conclusively adopts the Wady Der Jasin, on the northwest of Jerusalem. The valley appears to derive its name from the ancient nation of the Rephaim. [Giants] Rephan

the reading, in the Revised Version, for Remphan, (Acts 7:43) Rephidim

(Exodus 17:1,8; 19:2) The name means rests or stays, i.e. resting places. The place lies in the march of the Israelites from Egypt to Sinai. Its site is not certain, but it is perhaps Wady Feiran, a rather broad valley about 25 miles from Jebel Musa (Mount Sinai). Others place it in Wady es Sheikh, an eastern continuation of Feiran, and about 12 miles from Sinai. Here the Israelites fought their first battle and gained their first victory after leaving Egypt, the Amalekites having attacked them; here also the people murmured from thirst, and Moses brought water for them out of the rock. From this murmuring the place was called "Massah" and "Meribah." Resen

(bridle), (Genesis 10:12) one of the cities built by Asshur, "between Nineveh and Calah." Assyrian remains of some considerable extent are found near the modern village of Selamiyeh, and it is perhaps the most probable conjecture that these represent Resen. Resheph

(flame), a son of Ephraim. (1 Chronicles 7:25) Reu

(friend), son of Peleg, in the line of Abraham's ancestors. (Genesis 11:18,19,20,21; 1 Chronicles 1:25) (B.C. about 2213.) Reuben

(behold a son), Jacob's firstborn Child, (Genesis 29:32) the son of Leah. (B.C. 1753.) The notices of the patriarch Reuben give, on the whole a favorable view of his disposition. To him and

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

him alone the preservation of Joseph's life appears to have been due and afterward he becomes responsible for his safety. (Genesis 37:18-30; 42:37) Of the repulsive crime which mars his history, and which turned the blessing of his dying father into a curse—his adulterous connection with Bilhah— we know from the Scriptures only the fact. (Genesis 35:22) He was of an ardent, impetuous, unbalanced but not ungenerous nature; not crafty and cruel, as were Simeon and Levi, but rather, to use the metaphor of the dying patriarch, boiling up like a vessel of water over a rapid wood fire, and as quickly subsiding when the fuel was withdrawn. At the time of the migration into Egypt, Reuben's sons were four. (Genesis 46:9; 1 Chronicles 5:3) The census at Mount Sinai, (Numbers 1:20,21; 2:11) shows that at the exodus the men of the tribe above twenty years of age and fit for active warlike service numbered 46,600. The Reubenites maintained the ancient calling of their forefathers. Their cattle accompanied them in their flight from Egypt. (Exodus 12:38) Territory of the tribe .—The portion of the promised land selected by Reuben had the special name of "the Mishor," with reference possibly to its evenness. Under its modern name of the Belka it is still esteemed beyond all others by the Arab sheep-masters. It was a fine pasture-land east of the Jordan, lying between the river Arnon on the south and Gilead on the north. Though the Israelites all aided the Reubenites in conquering the land, and they in return helped their brothers to secure their own possessions, still there was always afterward a bar, a difference in feeling and habits, between the eastern and western tribes. The pile of stones which they erected on the west bank of the Jordan to mark their boundary was erected in accordance with the unalterable habits of Bedouin tribes both before and since. This act was completely misunderstood and was construed into an attempt to set up a rival altar to that of the sacred tent. No Judge, no prophet, no hero of the tribe of Reuben is handed down to us. The Reubenites disliked war clinging to their fields and pastures even when their brethren were in great distress. Being remote from the seat of the national government and of the national religion, it is not to be wondered at that the Reubenites relinquished the faith of Jehovah. The last historical notice which we possess of them, while it records this fact, records also as its natural consequence that they and the Gadites and the half-tribe Manasseh were carried off by Pul and Tiglath-pileser. (1 Chronicles 5:26) Reuel

(friend of God) One of the sons of Esau, by his wife Bashemath, sister of Ishmael. (Genesis 36:4,10,13,17; 1 Chronicles 1:36,37) (B.C. about 1790.) •One of the names of Moses' father-in-law. (Exodus 2:18) (B.C. 1530.) •Father of Eliasaph, the leader of the tribe of Gad at the time of the census at Sinai. (Numbers 2:14) (B.C. 1490.) •A Benjamite, ancestor of Elah. (1 Chronicles 9:8) Reumah

(elevated), the concubine of Nahor, Abraham's brother. (Genesis 22:4) (B.C. about 1870.) Revelation Of St. John

the last book of the New Testament. It is often called the Apocalypse, which is its title in Greek, signifying "Revelation," •Canonical authority and authorship.—The inquiry as to the canonical authority of the Revelation resolves itself into a question of authorship. Was St. John the apostle and evangelist the writer of the Revelation? The evidence adduced in support of his being the author consists of (1) the assertions of the author and (2) historical tradition. (1) The author's description of himself in the 1st and 22d chapters is certainly equivalent to an assertion that he is the apostle. He names himself

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

simply John, without prefix or addition. is also described as a servant of Christ, one who had borne testimony as an eye-witness of the word of God and of the testimony of Christ. He is in Patmos for the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ. He is also a fellow sufferer with those whom he addresses, and the authorized channel of the most direct and important communication that was ever made to the Seven Churches of Asia, of which churches John the apostle was at that time the spiritual governor and teacher. Lastly, the writer was a fellow servant of angels and a brother of prophets. All these marks are found united in the apostle John, and in him alone of all historical persons. (2) A long series of writers testify to St. John's authorship: Justin Martyr (cir. 150 A.D.), Eusebius, Irenaeus (A.D. 195), Clement of Alexandria (about 200), Tertullian (207), Origen (233). All the foregoing writers, testifying that the book came from an apostle, believed that it was a part of Holy Scripture. The book was admitted into the list of the Third Council of Carthage, A.D. 397. •Time and place of writing.—The date of the Revelation is given by the great majority of critics as A.D. 95-97. Irenaeus says: "It (i.e. the Revelation) was seen no very long time ago, but almost in our own generation, at the close of Domitian's reign. Eusebius also records that, in the persecution under Domitian, John the apostle and evangelist was banished to the Island Patmos for his testimony of the divine word. There is no mention in any writer of the first three centuries of any other time or place, and the style in which the messages to the Seven Churches are delivered rather suggests the notion that the book was written in Patmos. •Interpretation .—Modern interpreters are generally placed in three great divisions: (a) The Historical or Continuous exposition, in whose opinion the Revelation is a progressive history of the fortunes of the Church from the first century to the end of time. (b) The Praeterist expositors, who are of opinion that the Revelation has been almost or altogether fulfilled in the time which has passed since it was written; that it refers principally to the triumph of Christianity over Judaism and Paganism, signalized in the downfall of Jerusalem and of Rome. (c) The Futurist expositors, whose views show a strong reaction against some extravagances of the two preceding schools. They believe that the whole book, excepting perhaps the first three chapters, refers principally, if not exclusively, to events which are yet-to come. Dr.Arnold in his sermons "On the Interpretation of Prophecy" suggests that we should bear in mind that predictions have a lower historical sense as well as a higher spiritual sense; that there may be one or more than one typical, imperfect, historical fulfillment of the prophecy, in each of which the higher spiritual fulfillment is shadowed forth more or less distinctly. Rezeph

(a hot stone), one of the places which Sennacherib mentions, in his taunting message to Hezekiah, as having been destroyed by his predecessor. (2 Kings 19:12; Isaiah 37:12) Rezia

(delight), an Asherite, of the sons of Ulla. (1 Chronicles 7:39) (B.C. 1444.) Rezin

(firm). •King of Damascus. He attacked Jotham during the latter part of his reign, (2 Kings 15:37) but his chief war was with Ahaz, whose territories he invaded, in conjunction with Pekah about B.C. 741. Though unsuccessful is his siege of Jerusalem, (2 Kings 16:5; Isaiah 7:1) he "recovered Elath to Syria." (2 Kings 16:6) Soon after this he was attacked defeated and slain by Tiglath-pileser II, king of Assyria. (2 Kings 16:9)

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

•One of the families of the Nethinim. (Ezra 2:48; Nehemiah 7:50) (B.C. before 536.) Rezon

(prince), son of Eliadah, a Syrian, who when David defeated Hadadezer king of Zobah, put himself at the head of a band of freebooters and set up a petty kingdom at Damascus. (1 Kings 11:23) He harassed the kingdom of Solomon during his whole reign. (B.C. 1043-975.) Rhegium

(breach), an Italian town situated on the Bruttian coast, just at the southern entrance of the Straits of Messina. The name occurs in the account of St. Paul's voyage from Syracuse to Puteoli, after the shipwreck at Malta. (Acts 28:13) By a curious coincidence, the figures on its coin are the very "twin brothers" which gave the name to St. Paul's ship. It was originally a Greek colony; it was miserably destroyed by Dionysius of Syracuse. From Augustus it received advantages which combined with its geographical position in making it important throughout the duration of the Roman empire. The modern Reggio is a town of 10,000 inhabitants. Its distance across the straits from Messina is only about six miles. Rhesa

(head), son of Zorobabel in the genealogy of Christ. (Luke 3:27) It is conjectured that Rhesa is no person, but merely a title. Rhoda

(rose), the name of a maid who announced Peter's arrival at the door of Mary's house after his miraculous release from prison. (Acts 12:13) (A.D. 44.) Rhodes

(rosy), a celebrated island in the Mediterranean Sea. (It is triangular in form, 60 miles long from north to south, and about 18 wide. It is noted now, as in ancient times, for its delightful climate and the fertility of its soil. The city of Rhodes, its capital, was famous for its huge brazen statue of Apollo called the Colossus of Rhodes. It stood at the entrance of the harbor, and was so large that ships in full sail could pass between its legs. ED.) Rhodes is immediately opposite the high Carian and Lycian headlands at the southwest extremity of the peninsula of Asia Minor. Its position had much to do with its history. Its real eminence began about 400 B.C. with the founding of the city of Rhodes, at the northeast extremity of the island, which still continues to be the capital. After Alexander's death it entered on a glorious period, its material prosperity being largely developed, and its institutions deserving and obtaining general esteem. We have notice of the Jewish residents in Rhodes in 1 Macc. 15:23. The Romans, after the defeat of Antiochus, assigned, during some time, to Rhodes certain districts on the mainland. Its Byzantine, history is again eminent. Under Constantine If was the metropolis of the "Province of the Islands," It was the last place where the Christians of the East held out against the advancing Seracens; and subsequently it was once more famous as the home and fortress of the Knights of St. John. (It is now reduced to abject poverty. There are two cities—Rhodes the capital and Lindus—and forty or fifty villages. The population, according to Turner is 20,000, of whom 6000 are Turks and the rest Greeks, together with a few Jews.) Ribai, Or Ribai

(pleader with Jehovah), the father of Ittai the Benjamite, of Gibeah. (2 Samuel 23:29; 1 Chronicles 11:31) (B.C. before 1020.) Riblah

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(fertility), One of the landmarks on the eastern boundary of the land of Israel, as specified by Moses. (Numbers 34:11) It seems hardly possible, without entirely disarranging the specification or the boundary, that the Riblah in question can be the same with the following. •Riblah in the land of Hamath, a place on the great road between Palestine and Babylonia, at which the kings of Babylonia were accustomed to remain while directing the operations of their armies in Palestine and Phoenicia. Here Nebuchadnezzer waited while the sieges of Jerusalem and of Tyre were being conducted by his lieutenants. (Jeremiah 39:5,6; 62:9,10,26,27; 2 Kings 25:6,20,21) In like manner Pharaoh-necho after his victory over the Babylonians at Carchemish, returned to Riblah and summoned Jehoahaz from Jerusalem before him. (2 Kings 23:33) This Riblah still retains its ancient name, on the right (east) bank of the el-Asy (Orontes) upon the great road which connects Baalbek and Hums, about 36 miles northeast of the former end 20 miles southwest of the latter place. Riddle

It is known that all ancient nations, and especially Orientals, were fond of riddles. The riddles which the queen of Sheba came to ask of Solomon, (1 Kings 10:1; 2 Chronicles 9:1) were rather "hard questions" referring to profound inquiries. Solomon is said, however, to have been very fond of riddles. Riddles were generally proposed in verse, like the celebrated riddle of Samson. (Judges 14:14-19) Rimmon

a deity worshipped by the Syrians of Damascus, where there was a temple or house of Rimmon. (2 Kings 5:18) Rimmon is perhaps the abbreviated form of Hadad-rimmon, Hadad being the sun-god of the Syrians. Combining this with the pomegranate which was his symbol, Hadad-rimmon would then he the sun-god of the late summer, who ripens the pomegranate and other fruits.

(pomegranate) the name of several towns. •A city of Zebulun (1 Chronicles 6:77; Nehemiah 11:29) a Levitical city, the present Rummaneh, six miles north of Nazareth. •A town in the southern portion of Judah, (Joshua 15:3) allotted to Simeon, (Joshua 19:7; 1 Chronicles 4:32) probably 13 miles southwest of Hebron. •Rimmon-parez (pomegranate of the breach), the name of a march-station in the wilderness. (Numbers 33:19,20) No place now known has been identified with it. •Rimmon the Rock, a cliff or inaccessible natural fastness, in which the six hundred Benjamites who escaped the slaughter of Gibeah took refuge. (Judges 20:45,47; 21:13) In the wild country which lies on the east of the central highlands of Benjamin the name is still found attached to a village perched on the summit of a conical chalky hill, visible in all directions, and commanding the whole country. •A Benjamite of Beeroth, the father of Rechab and Baanah, the murderers of Ish-bosheth. (2 Samuel 4:2,5,9) Ring

The ring was regarded as an indispensable article of a Hebrew's attire, inasmuch as it contained his signet. It was hence the symbol of authority. (Genesis 41:42; Esther 3:10) Rings were worn not only by men, but by women. (Isaiah 3:21) We may conclude from (Exodus 28:11) that the rings contained a stone engraven with a device or with the owner's name. The custom appears also to have prevailed among the Jews of the apostolic age. (James 2:2) Rinnah

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

(a shout), one of the descendants of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:20) (B.C. 1300.) Riphath

(spoken), the second son of Gomer. (Genesis 10:3) The name may be identified with the Rhipaean mountains, i.e. the Carpathian range in the northeast of Dacia. Rithmah

(heath), a march-station in the wilderness, (Numbers 33:18,19) Probably northeast of Hazeroth. Riusah

(a ruin), a march-station in the wilderness. (Numbers 33:21,22) River

In the sense in which we employ the word viz. for a perennial stream of considerable size, a river is a much rarer object in the East than in the West. With the exception of the Jordan and the Litany, the streams of the holy land are either entirely dried up in the summer months converted into hot lanes of glaring stones, or else reduced to very small streamlets, deeply sunk in a narrow bed, and concealed from view by a dense growth of shrubs. The perennial river is called nahar by the Hebrews. With the definite article, "the river," it signifies invariably the Euphrates. (Genesis 31:21; Exodus 23:31; Numbers 24:6; 2 Samuel 10:16) etc. It is never applied to the fleeting fugitive torrents of Palestine. The term for these is nachal, for which our translators have used promiscuously, and sometimes almost alternately, "valley" "brook" and "river." No one of these words expresses the thing intended; but the term "brook" is peculiarly unhappy. Many of the wadys of Palestine are deep, abrupt chasms or rents in the solid rock of-the hills, and have a savage, gloomy aspect, far removed from that of an English brook. Unfortunately our language does not contain any single word which has both the meanings of the Hebrew nachal and its Arabic equivalent wady which can be used at once for a dry valley and for the stream which occasionally flows through it. River Of Egypt

The Nile. (Genesis 15:18) [Nile] • •A desert stream on the border of Egypt, still occasionally flowing in the valley called Wadi-l-'Areesh . The centre of the valley is occupied by the bed of this torrent, which only flows after rains, as is usual in the desert valleys. This stream is first mentioned as the point where the southern border of the promised land touched the Mediterranean, which formed its western border. (Numbers 34:3-6) In the latter history we find Solomon's kingdom extending from the "entering in of Hamath unto the river of Egypt," (1 Kings 8:65) and Egypt limited in the same manner where the loss of the eastern provinces is mentioned. (2 Kings 24:7) Rizpah

concubine to King Saul, and mother of his two sons Armoni and Mephibosheth. (B.C. 1080.) The tragic story of the love and endurance with which she watched over the bodies of her two sons, who were killed by the Gibeonites, (2 Samuel 21:8-11) has made Rizpah one of the most familiar objects in the whole Bible. Road

This word occurs but once in the Authorized Version of the Bible, viz. in (1 Samuel 37:10) where it is used in the sense of "raid" or "inroad." Where a travelled road is meant "path" or "way" is used, since the eastern roads are more like our paths. Robbery

Robbery has ever been one of the principal employments of the nomad tribes of the East. From the time of Ishmael to the present day the Bedouin has been a "wild man," and a robber by trade.

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

(Genesis 16:12) The Mosaic law on the subject of theft is contained in (Exodus 2:2) There seems no reason to suppose that the law underwent any alteration in Solomon's time. Man-stealing was punishable with death. (Exodus 21:16; 24:7) Invasion of right in land was strictly forbidden. (27:17; Isaiah 5:8; Micah 2:2) Roe, Roebuck

The Hebrew words thus translated denote some species of antelope, probably the Gazella arabica of Syria and Arabia. The gazelle was allowed as food, (12:15,22) etc.; it is mentioned as very fleet of foot, (2 Samuel 2:18; 1 Chronicles 12:8) it was hunted, (Isaiah 13:14; Proverbs 6:5) it was celebrated for its loveliness. (Song of Solomon 2:9,17; 8:14) Rogelim

(fullers) the residence of Barzillai the Gileadite, (2 Samuel 17:27; 19:31) in the highlands east of the Jordan. Rohgah

(clamor), an Asherite, of the sons of Shamer. (1 Chronicles 7:34) (B.C. about 1490.) Roll

A book in ancient times consisted of a single long strip of paper or parchment, which was usually kept rolled upon a stick, and was unrolled when a person wished to read it. The roll was usually written on one side only, and hence the particular notice of one that was "written within and without." (Ezekiel 2:10) The writing was arranged in columns. Romamtiezer

one of the fourteen sons of Heman. (1 Chronicles 25:4,31) (B.C. about 1014.) Roman Empire

The first historic mention of Rome in the Bible is in 1 Macc. 1:10, about the year 161 B.C. in the year 65 B.C., when Syria was made a Roman province by Pompey, the Jews were still governed •

by one of the Asmonaean princes. The next year Pompey himself marched an army into Judea and took Jerusalem. From this time the Jews were practically under the government of Rome. Finally, Antipater's son Herod the Great was made king by Antony's interest, B.C. 40, and confirmed in the kingdom by Augustus, B.C. 30. The Jews, however, were all this time tributaries of Rome, and their princes in reality were Roman procurators, On the banishment of Archelaus, A.D. 6, Judea became a mere appendage of the province of Syria, and was governed by a Roman procurator, who resided at Caesarea. Such were the relations of the Jewish people to the Roman government at the time when the New Testament history begins. •Extent of the empire .—Cicero's description of the Greek states and colonies as a "fringe on the skirts of barbarism" has been well applied to the Roman dominions before the conquests of Pompey and Caesar. The Roman empire was still confined to a narrow strip encircling the Mediterranean Sea. Pompey added Asia Minor and Syria. Caesar added Gaul. The generals of Augustus overran the northwest Portion of Spain and the country between the Alps and the Danube. The boundaries of the empire were now the Atlantic on the west, the Euphrates on the east, the deserts of Africa, the cataracts of the Nile and the Arabian deserts on the south, the British Channel, the Rhine, the Danube and the Black Sea on the north. The only subsequent conquests of importance were those of Britain by Claudius and of Dacia by Trajan. The only independent powers of importance were the Parthians on the east and the Germans on the north. The population of the empire in the time of Augustus has been calculated at 85,000,000.

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

•The provinces .—The usual fate of a country conquered by Rome was to be come a subject province, governed directly from Rome by officers sent out for that purpose. Sometimes, however, petty sovereigns were left in possession of a nominal independence on the borders or within the natural limits of the province. Augustus divided the provinces into two classes— (1) Imperial; (2) Senatorial; retaining in his own hands, for obvious reasons, those provinces where the presence of a large military force was necessary, and committing the peaceful and unarmed provinces to the senate. The New Testament writers invariably designate the governors of senatorial provinces by the correct title anthupatoi, proconsuls. (Acts 13:7; 18:12; 19:38) For the governor of an imperial province, properly styled "legatus Caesaris," the word hegemon (governor) is used in the New Testament. The provinces were heavily taxed for the benefit of Rome and her citizens. They are said to have been better governed under the empire than under the commonwealth, and those of the emperor better than those of the senate. •The condition of the Roman empire at the time when Christianity appeared has often been dwelt upon as affording obvious illustrations of St. Paul's expression that the "fullness of time had come." (Galatians 4:4) The general peace within the limits of the empire the formation of military roads, the suppression of piracy, the march of the legions, the voyages of the corn fleets, the general in crease of traffic, the spread of the Latin language in the West as Greek had already spread in the East, the external unity of the empire, offered facilities hitherto unknown for the spread of a world-wide religion. The tendency, too, of despotism like that of the Roman empire to reduce all its subjects to a dead level was a powerful instrument in breaking down the pride of privileged races and national religious, and familiarizing men with the truth that "God had made of one blood all nations on the face of the earth." (Acts 17:24,26) Put still more striking than this outward preparation for the diffusion of the gospel was the appearance of a deep and wide-spread corruption, which seemed to defy any human remedy. Romans, Epistle To The

The date of this epistle is fixed at the time of the visit recorded in Acts 20:3 during the winter and spring following the apostle's long residence at Ephesus A.D. 58. On this visit he remained in Greece three months.

•The place of writing was Corinth. •The occasion which prompted it,,and the circumstances attending its writing, were as follows:—St. Paul had long purposed visiting Rome, and still retained this purpose, wishing also to extend his journey to Spain. Etom. 1:9-13; 15:22-29. For the time, however, he was prevented from carrying out his design, as he was bound for Jerusalem with the alms of the Gentile Christians, and meanwhile he addressed this letter to the Romans, to supply the lack of his personal teaching. Phoebe, a deaconess of the neighboring church of Cenchreae, was on the point of starting for Rome, ch. (Romans 16:1,2) and probably conveyed the letter. The body of the epistle was written at the apostle's dictation by Tertius, ch. (Romans 16:22) but perhaps we may infer, from the abruptness of the final doxology, that it was added by the apostle himself. •The origin of the Roman church is involved in obscurity. If it had been founded by St. Peter according to a later tradition, the absence of any allusion to him both in this epistle and in the letters written by St. Paul from Rome would admit of no explanation. It is equally clear that no other apostle was like founder. The statement in the Clementines—that the first tidings of the gospel reached Rome during the lifetime of our Lord is evidently a fiction for the purposes of the romance. On the other hand, it is clear that the foundation of this church dates very far back. It

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may be that some of these Romans, "both Jews and proselytes," present. On the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:10) carried back the earliest tidings of the new doctrine; or the gospel may have first reached the imperial city through those who were scattered abroad to escape the persecution which followed on the death of Stephen. (Acts 8:4; 11:10) At first we may suppose that the gospel had preached there in a confused and imperfect form, scarcely more than a phase of Judaism, as in the case of Apollos at Corinth, (Acts 18:25) or the disciples at Ephesus. (Acts 19:1-3) As time advanced and better-instructed teachers arrived the clouds would gradually clear away, fill at length the presence of the great apostle himself at Rome dispersed the mists of Judaism which still hung about the Roman church. •A question next arises as to the composition of the Roman church at the time when St. Paul wrote. It is more probable that St. Paul addressed a mixed church of Jews and Gentiles, the latter perhaps being the more numerous. These Gentile converts, however, were not for the most part native Romans. Strange as the: paradox appears, nothing is more certain than that the church of Rome was at this time a Greek and not a Latin church. All the literature of the early Roman church was written in the Greek tongue. •The heterogeneous composition of this church explains the general character of the Epistle to the Romans. In an assemblage so various we should expect to find, not the exclusive predominance of a single form of error, but the coincidence of different and opposing forms. It was: therefore the business of the Christian teacher to reconcile the opposing difficulties and to hold out a meeting-point in the gospel. This is exactly what St. Paul does in the Epistle to the Romans. •In describing the purport of this epistle we may start from St. Paul's own words, which, standing at the beginning of the doctrinal portion, may be taken as giving a summary of the contents. ch. (Romans 1:16,17) Accordingly the epistle has been described as comprising "the religious philosophy of the world's history "The atonement of Christ is the centre of religious history. The epistle, from its general character, lends itself more readily to an analysis than is often the case with St. Paul's epistles. While this epistle contains the fullest and most systematic exposition of the apostle's teaching, it is at the same time a very striking expression of his character . Nowhere do his earnest and affectionate nature and his tact and delicacy in handling unwelcome topics appear more strongly than when he is dealing with the rejection of his fellow country men the Jews. Internal evidence is so strongly in favor of the genuineness of the Epistle to the Romans that it has never been seriously questioned. Rome

the famous capital of the ancient world, is situated on the Tiber at a distance of about 15 miles from its mouth. The "seven hills," (Revelation 17:9) which formed the nucleus of the ancient city stand on the left bank. On the opposite side of the river rises the far higher side of the Janiculum. Here from very early times was a fortress with a suburb beneath it extending to the river. Modern Rome lies to the north of the ancient city, covering with its principal portion the plain to the north of the seven hills, once known as the Campus Martius, and on the opposite bank extending over the low ground beneath the Vatican to the north of the ancient Janiculum. Rome is not mentioned in the Bible except in the books of Maccabees and in three books of the New Testament, viz., the Acts, the Epistle to the Romans and the Second Epistle to Timothy. •Jewish inhabitants. the conquests of Pompey seem to have given rise to the first settlement of Jews at Rome. The Jewish king Aristobulus and his son formed part of Pompey's triumph, and many Jewish captives and immigrants were brought to Rome at that time. A special district was assigned

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to them, not on the site of the modern Ghetto, between the Capitol and the island of the Tiber, but across the Tiber. Many of these Jews were made freedmen. Julius Caesar showed them some kindness; they were favored also by Augustus, and by Tiberius during the latter part of his reign. It is chiefly in connection with St. Paul's history that Rome comes before us in the Bible. In illustration of that history it may be useful to give some account of Rome in the time of Nero, the "Caesar" to whom St. Paul appealed, and in whose reign he suffered martyrdom. •The city in Paul's time.—The city at that time must be imagined as a large and irregular mass of buildings unprotected by an outer wall. It had long outgrown the old Servian wall; but the limits of the suburbs cannot be exactly defined. Neither the nature of the buildings nor the configuration of the ground was such as to give a striking appearance to the city viewed from without. "Ancient Rome had neither cupola nor camyanile," and the hills, never lofty or imposing, would present, when covered with the buildings and streets of a huge city, a confused appearance like the hills of modern London, to which they have sometimes been compared. The visit of St. Paul lies between two famous epochs in the history of the city, viz, its restoration by Augustus and its restoration by Nero. The boast of Augustus is well known, "that he found the city of brick, and left it of marble." Some parts of the city, especially the Forum and Campus Martius, must have presented a magnificent appearance, of which Niebur's "Lectures on Roman History," ii. 177, will give a general idea; but many of the principal buildings which attract the attention of modern travellers in ancient Rome were not yet built. The streets were generally narrow and winding, flanked by densely crowded lodging-houses (insulae) of enormous height. Augustus found it necessary to limit their height to 70 feet. St, Paul's first visit to Rome took place before the Neronian conflagration but even after the restoration of the city which followed upon that event, many of the old evils continued. The population of the city has been variously estimated. Probably Gibbon's estimate of 1,200,000 is nearest to the truth. One half of the population consisted, in all probability, of slaves. The larger part of the remainder consisted of pauper citizens supported in idleness by the miserable system of public gratuities. There appears to have been no middle class, and no free industrial population. Side by side with the wretched classes just mentioned was the comparatively small body of the wealthy nobility, of whose luxury and profligacy we learn so much from the heathen writers of the time, Such was the population which St. Paul would find at Rome at the time of his visit. We learn from the Acts of the Apostles that he was detained at Rome for "two whole years," "dwelling in his own hired house with a soldier that kept him," (Acts 28:16; 30) to whom apparently, according to Roman custom, he was hound with a chain. (Acts 28:20; Ephesians 6:20; Philemon 1:13) Here he preached to all that came to him, no man forbidding him. (Acts 28:30,31) It is generally believed that on his "appeal to Caesar" he was acquitted, and after some time spent in freedom, was a second time imprisoned at Rome. Five of his epistles, viz., those to the Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians, that to Philemon, and the Second Epistle to Timothy, were in all probability written from Rome, the latter shortly before his death (2 Timothy 4:6) the others during his first imprisonment. It is universally believed that he suffered martyrdom at Rome. •The localities in and about Rome especially connected with the life of Paul are— (1) The Appian Way, by which he approached Rome. (Acts 28:15) [Appii Forum FORUM] (2) "The palace," Or "Caesar's court" (praetorium,) (Philemon 1:13) This may mean either the great camp of the Praetorian guards which Tiberius established outside the walls on the northeast of the city, or, as seems more probable, a barrack attached to the imperial residence on the Palatine. There is no sufficient proof that the word "praetorium" was ever used to designate the emperors palace, though

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it is used for the official residence of a Roman governor. (John 18:28; Acts 23:35) the mention of "Caesar's household," (Philemon 4:22) confirms the notion that St. Paul's residence was in the immediate neighborhood of the emperor's house on the Palatine. (3) The connection of other localities at home with St. Paul's name rests only on traditions of more or less probability. We may mention especially— (4) The Mamertine prison, of Tullianum, built by Ancus Martius near the Forum. It still exists beneath the church of St. Giuseppe dei Falegnami. It is said that St. Peter and St. Paul were fellow prisoners here for nine months. This is not the place to discuss the question whether St. Peter was ever at Rome. It may be sufficient to state that though there is no evidence of such a visit in the New Testament, unless Babylon in (1 Peter 5:13) is a mystical name for Rome yet early testimony and the universal belief of the early Church seems sufficient to establish the fact of his having suffered martyrdom there. [Peter] The story, however, of the imprisonment in the Mamertine prison seems inconsistent with (2 Timothy 4:11) (5) The chapel on the Ostian road which marks the spot where the two apostles are said to, have separated on their way to martyrdom. (6)The supposed scene of St. Paul's martyrdom, viz., the church of St. Paolo alle tre fontane on the Ostian road. To these may be added— (7) The supposed scene of St. Peter's martyrdom, viz., the church of St. Pietro in Montorio, on the Janiculum. (8) The chapel Domine que Vadis, on the Aypian road,the scene of the beautiful legend of our Lord's appearance to St. Peter as he was escaping from martyrdom. (9) The places where the bodies of the two apostles, after having been deposited first in the catacombs, are supposed to have been finally buried—that of St. Paul by the Ostian road, that of St. Peter beneath the dome of the famous Basilica which bears his name. We may add, as sites unquestionably connected with the Roman Christians of the apostolic age— (10) The gardens of Nero in the Vatican. Not far from the spot where St. Peter's now stands. Here Christians, wrapped in the skins of beasts, were torn to pieces by dogs, or, clothed in inflammable robes, were burnt to serve as torches during the midnight games. Others were crucified. (11) The Catacombs. These subterranean galleries, commonly from 8 to 10 feet in height and from 4 to 6 in width, and extending for miles, especially in the neighborhood of the old Appian and Nomentan Ways, were unquestionably used as places of refuge, of worship and of burial by the early Christians. The earliest dated inscription in the catacombs is A.D. 71. Nothing is known of the first founder of the Christian Church at Rome. Christianity may, perhaps, have been introduced into the city not long after the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost by the "strangers of Rome, who were then at Jerusalem, (Acts 2:10) It is clear that there were many Christians at Rome before St. Paul visited the city. (Romans 1:8,13,15; 15:20) The names of twenty-four Christians at Rome are given in the salutations at the end of the Epistle to the Romans. Linus, who is mentioned (2 Timothy 4:21) and Clement, Phil 4:3 Are supposed to have succeeded St. Peter as bishops of Rome. Roof

[House] Room

The references to "room" in (Matthew 23:6; Mark 12:39; Luke 14:7,8; 20:46) signify the highest place on the highest couch round the dinner or supper table—the "uppermost seat", as it is more accurately rendered in (Luke 11:43) Rose

occurs twice only, viz. in (Song of Solomon 2:1; Isaiah 35:1) There is much difference of opinion as to what particular flower is here denoted; but it appears to us most probable that the

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narcissus is intended. Chateaubriand mentions the narcissus as growing in the Plain of Sharon. Roses are greatly prized in the East, more especially for the sake of the rose-water, which is much request. Dr. Hooker observed seven species of wild roses in Syria. Rosh

(Ezekiel 38:2,3; 39:1) probably a proper name, referring to the first of the three great Scythian tribes of which Magog was the head.

(head). In the genealogy of (Genesis 46:21) Rosh is reckoned among the sons of Benjamin. Rosin

Properly "naphtha," as it is both in the LXX. and the Vulgate, as well as in the Peshito-Syriac. Pliny mentions naphtha as a product of Babylonia, similar in appearance to liquid bitumen, and having a remarkable affinity to fire. Rubies

Concerning the meaning of the Hebrew words translated "rubies" there is much difference of opinion. (Job 28:18) see also Prov 3:15; 8:11; 31:10 Some suppose "coral" to be in tended; others "pearl," supposing that the original word signifies merely "bright in color," or "color of a reddish tinge." (The real ruby is a red sapphire, next in value to the diamond. The finest rubies are brought chiefly from Ceylon and Burmah.) Rue

occurs only in (Luke 11:42) The rue here spoken of is doubtless the common Ruta graveolens a shrubby plant about two feet high, of strong medicinal virtues. It is a native of the Mediterranean coasts, and has been found by Hasselquist on Mount Tabor. The Talmud enumerates rue amongst kitchen herbs, and regards it as free of tithe as being a plant not cultivated in gardens. In our Lord's time however rue was doubtless a garden plant, and therefore tithable. Rufus

(red) is mentioned in (Mark 15:21) as a son of Simon the Cyrenian. (Luke 23:26) (A.D. 29.) Again, in (Romans 16:13) the apostle Paul salutes a Rufus whom he designates as "elect in the Lord." This Rufus was probably identical with the one to whom Mark refers. Ruhamah, Or Ruhamah

(having obtained mercy). (Hosea 2:1) The name if name it be, is symbolical, and is addressed to the DAUGHTERS of the people, to denote that they were still the objects of love and tender compassion. Rumah

(high), mentioned once only— (2 Kings 23:36) It has been conjectured to be the same place as Arumah. (Judges 9:41) which was apparently near Shechem. It is more probable that it is identical with Dumah. (Joshua 15:52) Ruth

(a female friend) a Moabitish woman, the wife, first of Mahlon, second of Boaz, the ancestress of David and Christ,and one of the four women who are named by St. Matthew in the genealogy of Christ. A severe famine in the land of Judah induced Elimelech, a native of Bethlehem—ephratah, to emigrate into the land of Moab, with his wife Naomi, and his two sons, Mahlon and Chilion. This was probably about the time of Gideon, B.C. 1250. At the end of ten years Naomi now left a widow and childless, having heard that there was plenty again in Judah, resolved to return to Bethlehem, and her daughter-in-law Ruth returned with her. They arrived at Bethlehem just at the beginning of barley harvest, and Ruth, going out to glean, chanced to go into the field of wheat, a

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wealthy man and a near kinsman of her father-in-law, Elimelech. Upon learning who the stranger was, Boaz treated her with the utmost kindness and respect, and sent her home laden with corn which she had gleaned. Encouraged by this incident, Naomi instructed Ruth to claim at the hand of Boaz that he should perform the part of her husband's near kinsman, by purchasing the inheritance of Elimelech and taking her to be his wife. With all due solemnity, Boaz took Ruth to be his wife, amidst the blessings and congratulations of their neighbors. Their son, Obed, was 'the father of Jesse, who was the father of David. Ruth, Book Of

contains the history of Ruth, as narrated in the preceding article. The main object of the writer is evidently to give an account of David's ancestors; and the book was avowedly composed long after the time of the heroine. See (Ruth 1:1; 4:7,17) Its date and author are quite uncertain. Tradition is in favor of Samuel. It is probable that the books of Judges, Ruth, Samuel and Kings originally formed but one work. The book of Ruth clearly forms part of the books of Samuel, supplying as it does the essential point of David's genealogy and early family history, and is no less clearly connected with the book of Judges by its opening verse and the epoch to which the whole book relates. Rye

(Heb. cussemeth) occurs in (Exodus 9:32; Isaiah 28:25) in the latter the margin reads "spelt." In (Ezekiel 4:9) the text has "fitches" and the margin "rie." It is probable that by cussemeth "spelt" is intended. Spelt (Triticum spelta) is grown in some parts of the south of Germany; it differs but slightly from our common wheat (T. vulgare).

Sabachthani, Or Sabachthani

(why hast thou forsaken me?), part of Christ's fourth cry on the cross. (Matthew 27:46; Mark 15:34) This, with the other words uttered with it, as given in Mark, is Aramaic (Syro-Chaldaic), the common dialect of the people of palestine in Christ's time and the whole is a translation of the Hebrew (given in Matthew) of the first words of the 22d Psalm.—ED. Sabaoth, The Lord Of

occurs in (Romans 9:29; James 5:4) but is more familiar through its occurrence in the Sanctus of Te Deum—"Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Sabaoth." Sabaoth is the Greek form of the Hebrew word tsebaoth "armies," and is translated in the Authorized Version of the Old Testament by "Lord of hosts," "Lord God of hosts." In the mouth and the mind of an ancient Hebrew, Jehovah-tsebaoth was the leader and commander of the armies of the nation, who "went forth with them" (Psalms 44:9) and led them to certain victory over the worshippers of Baal Chemosh. Molech, Ashtaroth and other false gods. Sabbath

(shabbath), "a day of rest," from shabath "to cease to do to," "to rest"). The name is applied to divers great festivals, but principally and usually to the seventh day of the week, the strict observance of which is enforced not merely in the general Mosaic code, but in the Decalogue itself. The consecration of the Sabbath was coeval with the creation. The first scriptural notice of it, though it is not mentioned by name, is to be found in (Genesis 2:3) at the close of the record of the six-days creation. There are not wanting indirect evidences of its observance, as the intervals between Noah's

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sending forth the birds out of the ark, an act naturally associated with the weekly service, (Genesis 8:7-12) and in the week of a wedding celebration, (Genesis 29:27,28) but when a special occasion arises, in connection with the prohibition against gathering manna on the Sabbath, the institution is mentioned as one already known. (Exodus 16:22-30) And that this (All this is confirmed by the great antiquity of the division of time into weeks, and the naming the days after the sun, moon and planets.) was especially one of the institutions adopted by Moses from the ancient patriarchal usage is implied in the very words of the law "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy." But even if such evidence were wanting, the reason of the institution would be a sufficient proof. It was to be a joyful celebration of God's completion of his creation. It has indeed been said that Moses gives quite a different reason for the institution of the Sabbath, as a memorial of the deliverance front Egyptian bondage. (5:15) The words added in Deuteronomy are a special motive for the joy with which the Sabbath should be celebrated and for the kindness which extended its blessings to the slave and the beast of burden as well as to the master: "that thy man servant and thy maidservant may rest as well as thought. (5:14) These attempts to limit the ordinance proceed from an entire misconception of its spirit, as if it were a season of stern privation rather than of special privilege. But in truth, the prohibition of work is only subsidiary to the positive idea of joyful rest and recreation in communion with Jehovah, who himself "rested and was refreshed." (Exodus 31:17) comp. (Exodus 23:12) It is in (Exodus 16:23-29) that we find the first incontrovertible institution of the day, as one given to and to be kept by the children of Israel. Shortly afterward it was re-enacted in the Fourth Commandment. This beneficent character of the Fourth Commandment is very apparent in the version of it which we find in Deuteronomy. (5:12-15) The law and the Sabbath are placed upon the same ground, and to give rights to classes that would otherwise have been without such—to the bondman and bondmaid may, to the beast of the field-is viewed here as their main end. "The stranger," too is comprehended in the benefit. But the original proclamation of it in Exodus places it on a ground which, closely connected no doubt with these others is yet higher and more comprehensive. The divine method of working and rest is there propose to work and to rest. Time then to man as the model after which presented a perfect whole it is most important to remember that the Fourth Commandment is not limited to a mere enactment respecting one day, but prescribes the due distribution of a week, and enforces the six days' work as much as the seventh day's rest. This higher ground of observance was felt to invest the Sabbath with a theological character, and rendered if the great witness for faith in a personal and creating God. It was to be a sacred pause in the ordinary labor which man earns his bread the curse the fall was to be suspended for one and, having spent that day in joyful remembrance of God's mercies, man had a fresh start in his course of labor. A great snare, too, has always been hidden in the word work, as if the commandment forbade occupation and imposed idleness. The terms in the commandment show plainly enough the sort of work which is contemplated-servile work and business. The Pentateuch presents us with but three applications of the general principle— (Exodus 16:29; 35:3; Numbers 15:32-36) The reference of Isaiah to the Sabbath gives us no details. The references in Jeremiah and Nehemiah show that carrying goods for sale, and buying such, were equally profanations of the day. A consideration of the spirit of the law and of Christ's comments on it will show that it is work for worldly gain that was to be suspended; and hence the restrictive clause is prefaced with the restrictive command. "Six days shalt thou labor, and do all thy work;" for so only could the sabbatic rest be fairly earned. Hence, too, the stress constantly laid on permitting the servant and beast of burden to share the rest which selfishness would grudge to them. Thus the spirit of the Sabbath was joy,

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refreshment and mercy, arising from remembrance of God's goodness as Creator and as the Deliverer from bondage. The Sabbath was a perpetual sign and covenant, and the holiness of the day is collected with the holiness of the people; "that ye may know that I am Jehovah that doth sanctify you." (Exodus 31:12-17; Ezekiel 20:12) Joy was the key-note Of their service. Nehemiah commanded the people, on a day holy to Jehovah "Mourn not, nor weep: eat the fat, and drink: the sweet, and send portions to them for whom nothing is prepared." (Nehemiah 8:9-13) The Sabbath is named as a day of special worship in the sanctuary. (Leviticus 19:30; 26:2) It was proclaimed as a holy convocation. (Leviticus 23:3) In later times the worship of the sanctuary was enlivened by sacred music. (Psalms 68:25-27; 150:1)... etc. On this day the people were accustomed to consult their prophets, (2 Kings 4:23) and to give to their children that instruction in the truths recalled to memory by the day which is so repeatedly enjoined as the duty of parents; it was "the Sabbath of Jehovah" not only in the sanctuary, but "in all their dwellings." (Leviticus 23:3) When we come to the New Testament we find the most marked stress laid on the Sabbath. In whatever ways the Jew might err respecting it, he had altogether ceased to neglect it. On the contrary wherever he went its observance became the most visible badge of his nationality. Our Lord's mode of observing the Sabbath was one of the main features of his life, which his Pharisaic adversaries meet eagerly watched and criticized. They had invented many prohibitions respecting the Sabbath of which we find nothing in the original institution. Some of these prohibitions were fantastic and arbitrary, in the number of those "heavy burdens and grievous to be borne" while the latter expounders of the law "laid on men's shoulders." Comp. (Matthew 12:1-13; John 5:10) That this perversion of the Sabbath had become very general in our Saviour's time is apparent both from the recorded objections to acts of his on that day and from his marked conduct on occasions to which those objections were sure to be urged. (Matthew 12:1-16; Mark 3:2; Luke 6:1-5; 13:10-17; John 6:2-18; 7:23; 9:1-34) Christ's words do not remit the duty of keeping the Sabbath, but only deliver it from the false methods of keeping which prevented it from bestowing upon men the spiritual blessings it was ordained to confer. Sabbathdays Journey

(Acts 1:12) The law as regards travel on the Sabbath is found in (Exodus 16:29) As some departure from a man's own place was unavoidable, it was thought necessary to determine the allowable amount, which was fixed at 2000 paces, or about six furlongs from the wall of the city. The permitted distance seems to have been grounded on the space to he kept between the ark and the people, (Joshua 3:4) in the wilderness, which tradition said was that between the ark and the tents. We find the same distance given as the circumference outside the walls of the Levitical cities to be counted as their suburbs. (Numbers 33:5) The terminus a quo was thus not a man's own house, but the wall of the city where he dwelt. Sabbatical Year

Each seventh year, by the Mosaic code, was to be kept holy. (Exodus 23:10,11) The commandment is to sow and reap for six years, and to let the land rest on the seventh, "that the poor of thy people may eat; and what they leave the beasts of the held shall eat. It is added in (15:1) ... that the seventh Year should also be one of release to debtors. (15:1-11) Neither tillage nor cultivation of any sort was to be practiced. The sabbatical year opened in the sabbatical month, and the whole law was to be read every such year, during the feast of Tabernacles, to the assembled people. At the completion of a week of sabbatical years, the sabbatical scale received its completion in the year of jubilee. [Jubilee, The Year Of] The constant neglect of this law from the very first

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was one of the national sins that were punished by the Babylonian captivity. Of the observance of the sabbatical year after the captivity we have a proof in 1 Macc. 6:49. Sabeans

[Sheba] Sabtah

(striking), (Genesis 10:7) or Sab'ta, (1 Chronicles 1:9) the third in order of the sons of Cush. (B.C. 2218.) Sabtecha, Or Sabtechah

(striking), (Genesis 10:7; 1 Chronicles 1:9) the fifth in order of the sons of Cush. (B.C. 2218.) Sacar

(wages). •A Hararite, father of Ahiam. (1 Chronicles 11:35) •The fourth son of Obed-edom. (1 Chronicles 26:4) Sackbut

(Daniel 3:5,7,10,15) the rendering in the Authorized Version of the Chaldee sacbbeca . If this music instrument be the same as the Greek and Latin sabbeca, the English translation is entirely wrong. The sackbut was a wind instrument [see Music]; the sambuca was a triangular instrument, with strings, and played with the hand. Sackcloth

cloth used in making sacks or bags, a coarse fabric, of a dark color, made of goat's hair, (Isaiah 50:3; Revelation 6:12) end resembling the eilicium of the Romans. It, was used also for making the rough garments used by mourners, which were in extreme cases worn next the skin. (1 Kings 21:27; 2 Kings 6:30; Job 16:15; Isaiah 32:11) Sacrifice

The peculiar features of each kind of sacrifice are referred to under their respective heads. I. (A) ORIGIN OF SACRIFICE.—The universal prevalence of sacrifice shows it to have been primeval, and deeply rooted in the instincts of humanity. Whether it was first enjoined by an external command, or whether it was based on that sense of sin and lost communion with God which is stamped by his hand on the heart of man, is a historical question which cannot be determined. (B) ANTE-MOSAIC HISTORY OF SACRIFICE.—In examining the various sacrifices recorded in Scripture before the establishment of the law, we find that the words specially denoting expiatory sacrifice are not applied to them. This fact does not at all show that they were not actually expiatory, but it justified the inference that this idea was not then the prominent one in the doctrine of sacrifice. The sacrifices of Cain and Abel are called minehah, tend appear to have been eucharistic. Noah's, (Genesis 8:20) and Jacob's at Mizpah, were at the institution of a covenant; and may be called federative. In the burnt offerings of Job for his children (Job 1:5) and for his three friends ch. (Job 42:8) we for the first time find the expression of the desire of expiation for sin. The same is the case in the words of Moses to Pharaoh. (Exodus 10:26) Here the main idea is at least deprecatory. (C) THE SACRIFICES OF THE MOSAIC PERIOD.—These are inaugurated by the offering of the Passover and the sacrifice of (Exodus 24:1) ... The Passover indeed is unique in its character but it is clear that the idea of salvation from death by means of sacrifice is brought out in it with a distinctness before unknown. The law of Leviticus now unfolds distinctly the various forms of sacrifice: (a) The burnt offering : Self-dedicatory. (b) The meat offering : (unbloody): Eucharistic. (c) The sin offering ; the trespass offering: Expiatory. To these may be added, (d) The incense

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offered after sacrifice in the holy place and (on the Day of Atonement) in the holy of holies, the symbol of the intercession of the priest (as a type of the great High Priest) accompanying and making efficacious the prayer of the people. In the consecration of Aaron and his sons, (Leviticus 8:1) ... we find these offered in what became ever afterward their appointed order. First came the sin offering, to prepare access to God; next the burnt offering, to mark their dedication to his service; and third the meat offering of thanksgiving. Henceforth the sacrificial system was fixed in all its parts until he should come whom it typified. (D) POST-MOSAIC SACRIFICES.—It will not be necessary to pursue, in detail the history of the Poet Mosaic sacrifice, for its main principles were now fixed forever. The regular sacrifices in the temple service were— (a) Burnt offerings. 1, The daily burnt offerings, (Exodus 29:38-42) 2, The double burnt offerings on the Sabbath, (Numbers 28:9,10) 3, The burnt offerings at the great festivals; (Numbers 26:11; Numbers 29:39) (b) Meat offerings . 1, The daily meat offerings accompanying the daily burnt offerings, (Exodus 29:40,41) 2, The shewbread, renewed every Sabbath, (Leviticus 24:6,9) 3, The special meat offerings at the Sabbath and the great festivals, (Numbers 28:1; Numbers 29:1) ... 4, The first-fruits, at the Passover, (Leviticus 23:10-14) at Pentecost, (Leviticus 23:17-20) the firstfruits of the dough and threshing-floor at the harvest time. (Numbers 15:20,21; 26:1-11) (c) Sin offerings . 1, Sin offering each new moon (Numbers 28:15) 2, Sin offerings at the passover, Pentecost, Feast of Trumpets and Tabernacles, (Numbers 28:22,30; 29:5,16,19,22,25,28,31,34,38) 3, The offering of the two goats for the people and of the bullock for the priest himself, on the Great Day of Atonement. (Leviticus 16:1) ... (d) Incense . 1, The morning and evening incense (Exodus 30:7,8) 2, The incense on the Great Day of Atonement. (Leviticus 16:12) Besides these public sacrifices, there were offerings of the people for themselves individually. II. By the order of sacrifice in its perfect form, as in (Leviticus 8:1) ... it is clear that the sin offering occupies the most important: place; the burnt offering comes next, and the meat offering or peace offering last of all. The second could only be offered after the first had been accepted; the third was only a subsidiary part of the second. Yet, in actual order of time it has been seen that the patriarchal sacrifices partook much more of the nature of the peace offering and burnt offering, and that under the raw, by which was "the knowledge of sin," (Romans 3:20) the sin offering was for the first time explicitly set forth. This is but natural that the deepest ideas should be the last in order of development. The essential difference between heathen views of sacrifice and the scriptural doctrine of the Old. Testament is not to be found in its denial of any of these views. In fact, it brings out clearly and distinctly the ideas which in heathenism were uncertain, vague and perverted. But the essential points of distinction are two. First, that whereas the heathen conceived of their gods as alienated in jealousy or anger, to be sought after and to be appeased by the unaided action of man, Scripture represents God himself as approaching man, as pointing out and sanctioning the way by which the broken covenant should be restored. The second mark of distinction is closely connected with this, inasmuch as it shows sacrifice to he a scheme proceeding from God, and in his foreknowledge, connected with the one central fact of all human history. From the prophets and the Epistle to the Hebrews we learn that the sin offering represented that covenant as broken by man, and as knit together again, by God's appointment through the shedding of the blood, the symbol of life, signified that the death of the offender was deserved for sin, but that the death of the victim was accepted for his death by the ordinance of God's mercy. Beyond all doubt the sin offering distinctly witnessed that sin existed in man. that the "wages of that sin was death," and that God had provided an atonement by the vicarious suffering of an appointed victim. The ceremonial and meaning of the burnt offering were very different. The idea of expiation seems not

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to have been absent from it, for the blood was sprinkled round about the altar of sacrifice; but the main idea is the offering of the whole victim to God, representing as the laying of the hand on its head shows, the devotion of the sacrificer, body and soul. to him. (Romans 12:1) The death of the victim was, so to speak, an incidental feature. The meat offering, the peace or thank offering, the firstfruits, etc., were simply offerings to God of his own best gifts, as a sign of thankful homage, and as a means of maintaining his service and his servants. The characteristic ceremony in the peace offering was the eating of the flesh by the sacrificer. It betokened the enjoyment of communion with God. It is clear from this that the idea of sacrifice is a complex idea, involving the propitiatory, the dedicatory and the eucharistic elements. Any one of these, taken by itself, would lead to error and superstition. All three probably were more or less implied in each sacrifice. each element predominating in its turn. The Epistle to the Hebrews contains the key of the whole sacrificial doctrine. The object of the epistle is to show the typical and probationary character of sacrifices, and to assert that in virtue of it alone they had a spiritual meaning. Our Lord is declared (see) (1 Peter 1:20) "to have been foreordained" as a sacrifice "before the foundation of the world," or as it is more strikingly expressed in (Revelation 13:8) "slain from the foundation of the world." The material sacrifices represented this great atonement as already made and accepted in God's foreknowledge; and to those who grasped the ideas of sin, pardon and self-dedication symbolized in them, they were means of entering into the blessings which the one true sacrifice alone procured. They could convey nothing in themselves yet as types they might, if accepted by a true though necessarily imperfect faith be means of conveying in some degree the blessings of the antitype. It is clear that the atonement in the Epistle to the Hebrews as in the New Testament generally, is viewed in a twofold light. On the one hand it is set forth distinctly as a vicarious sacrifice, which was rendered necessary by the sin of man and in which the Lord "bare the sins of many." It is its essential characteristic that in it he stands absolutely alone offering his sacrifice without any reference to the faith or the conversion of men. In it he stands out alone as the mediator between God and man; and his sacrifice is offered once for all, never to be imitated or repeated. Now, this view of the atonement is set forth in the epistle as typified by the sin offering. On the other hand the sacrifice of Christ is set forth to us as the completion of that perfect obedience to the will of the Father which is the natural duty of sinless man. The main idea of this view of the atonement is representative rather than vicarious. It is typified by the burnt offering. As without the sin offering of the cross this our burnt offering would be impossible, so also without the burnt offering the sin offering will to us be unavailing. With these views of our Lord's sacrifice oil earth, as typified in the Levitical sacrifices on the outer alter, is also to be connected the offering of his intercession for us in heaven, which was represented by the incense. The typical sense of the meat offering or peace offering is less connected the sacrifice of Christ himself than with those sacrifices of praise, thanksgiving, charity and devotion which we, as Christians, offer to God, and "with which he is well pleased," (Hebrews 13:15,16) as with an odor of sweet smell, a sacrifice acceptable to God." (Philemon 4:28) Sadducees

(followers of Zadok), (Matthew 3:7; 16:1,6,11,12; 22:23,31; Mark 12:18; Luke 20:27; Acts 4:1; 5:17; 23:6,7,8) a religious party or school among the Jews at the time of Christ, who denied that the oral law was a revelation of God to the Israelites. and who deemed the written law alone to be obligatory on the nation, as of divine authority. Except on one occasion. (Matthew 16:1,4,6) Christ never assailed the Sadducees with the same bitter denunciations which he uttered against the Pharisees. The origin of their name is involved in great difficulties, but the most satisfactory

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conjecture is that the Sadducees or Zadokites were originally identical with the sons of Zadok, and constituted what may be termed a kind of sacerdotal aristocracy, this Zadok being the priest who declared in favor of Solomon when Abiathar took the part of Adonijah. (1 Kings 1:32-45) To these sons of Zadok were afterward attached all who for any reason reckoned themselves as belonging to the aristocrats; such, for example, as the families of the high priest, who had obtained consideration under the dynasty of Herod. These were for the most part judges, and individuals of the official and governing class. This explanation elucidates at once (Acts 5:17) The leading tenet of the Sadducees was the negation of the leading tenet of their opponents. As the Pharisees asserted so the Sadducees denied, that the Israelites were in possession of an oral law transmitted to them by Moses, [Pharisees] In opposition to the Pharisees, they maintained that the written law alone was obligatory on the nation, as of divine authority. The second distinguishing doctrine of the Sadducees was the denial of man's resurrection after death . In connection with the disbelief of a resurrection by the Sadducees, they likewise denied there was "angel or spirit," (Acts 23:8) and also the doctrines of future punishment and future rewards. Josephus states that the Sadducees believed in the freedom of the will, which the Pharisees denied. They pushed this doctrine so far as almost to exclude God from the government of the world. Some of the early Christian writers attribute to the Sadducees the rejection of all the sacred Scriptures except the Pentateuch ; a statement, however, that is now generally admitted to have been founded on a misconception of the truth, and it seems to have arisen from a confusion of the Sadducees with the Samaritans. An important fact in the history of the Sadducees is their rapid disappearance from history after the first century, and the subsequent predominance among the Jews of the opinions of the Pharisees. Two circumstances contributed, indirectly but powerfully, to produce this result: 1st. The state of the Jews after the capture of Jerusalem by Titus; and 2d. The growth of the Christian religion. As to the first point, it is difficult to overestimate the consternation and dismay which the destruction of Jerusalem occasioned in the minds of sincerely-religious Jews. In their hour of darkness and anguish they naturally turned to the consolations and hopes of a future state; and the doctrine of the Sadducees, that there was nothing beyond the present life, would have appeared to them cold, heartless and hateful. Again, while they were sunk in the lowest depths of depression, a new religion, which they despised as a heresy and a superstition, was gradually making its way among the subjects of their detested conquerors, the Romans. One of the causes of its success was undoubtedly the vivid belief in the resurrection of Jesus and a consequent resurrection of all mankind, which was accepted by its heathen converts with a passionate earnestness of which those who at the present day are familiar from infancy with the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead call form only a faint idea. To attempt to chock the progress of this new religion among the Jews by an appeal to the temporary rewards and punishments of the Pentateuch would have been as idle as an endeavor to check an explosive power by ordinary mechanical restraints. Consciously, therefore, or unconsciously, many circumstances combined to induce the Jews who were not Pharisees, but who resisted the new heresy, to rally round the standard of the oral law, and to assert that their holy legislator, Moses, had transmitted to his faithful people by word of mouth, although not in writing, the revelation of a future state of rewards and punishments. Sadoc

(Greek form of Zadok, just). •Zadok the ancestor of Ezra. 2 Esd. 1:1; comp. (Ezra 7:2) •A descendant of Zerubbabel in the genealogy of Jesus Christ. (Matthew 1:14) (B.C. about 280.)

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Saffron

(yellow). (Song of Solomon 4:14) Saffron has front the earliest times been in high esteem as a perfume. "It was used," says Rosenmuller, "for the same purposes as the modern pot-pourri." The word saffron is derived from the Arabic zafran, "yellow." (The saffron (Crocus sativus) is a kind of crocus of the iris family. It is used its a medicine, as a flavoring and as a yellow dye. Homer, Virgil and Milton refer to its beauty in the landscape. It abounds in Palestine name saffron is usually applied only to the stigmas and part of the style, which are plucked out and dried.—ED.) Sala, Or Salah

(sprout), the son of Arphaxad, and father of Eber. (Genesis 10:24; 11:18-14; Luke 3:35) (B.C. 2307.) Salamis

(suit), a city at the east end of the island of Cyprus, and the first place visited by Paul and Barnabas, on the first missionary journey, after leaving the mainland at Seleucia. Here alone, among all the Greek cities visited by St. Paul, we read expressly of "synagogues" in the plural, (Acts 13:5) hence we conclude that there were many Jews in Cyprus. And this is in harmony with what we read elsewhere. Salamis was not far from the modern Famagousta, it was situated near a river called the Pediaeus, on low ground, which is in fact a continuation of the plain running up into the interior toward the place where Nicosia, the present capital of Cyprus, stands. Salathiel

(I have asked of God). (1 Chronicles 3:17) The Authorized Version has Salathiel in (1 Chronicles 3:17) but everywhere else in the Old Testament Shealtiel. Salcah, Or Salchah

(migration), a city named in the early records of Israel as the extreme limit of Bashan, (3:10; Joshua 13:11) and of the tribe of Gad. (1 Chronicles 5:71) On another occasion the name seems to denote a district rather than a town. (Joshua 12:5) It is identical with the town of Sulkhad (56 miles east of the Jordan, at the southern extremity of the Hauran range of mountains. The place is nearly deserted, though it contains 800 stone houses, many of them in a good state of preservation.-ED.) Salem

(peace). •The place of which Melchizedek was king. (Genesis 14:18; Hebrews 7:1,2) No satisfactory identification of it is perhaps possible. Two main opinions have been current from the earliest ages of interpretation: (1). That of the Jewish commentators, who affirm that Salem is Jerusalem, on the ground that Jerusalem is so called in (Psalms 76:2) Nearly all Jewish commentators hold this opinion. (2). Jerome, however, states that the Salem of Melchizedek was not Jerusalem, but a town eight Roman miles south of Scythopolis, and gives its then name as Salumias, and identifies it with Salem, where John baptized. •(Psalms 76:2) it is agreed on all hands that Salem is here employed for Jerusalem. Salim

(peace), a place named (John 3:23) to denote the situation of AEnon, the scene of St. John's last baptisms; Salim being the well-known town, and AEnon a place of fountains or other waters near it. [Salem] The name of Salim has been discovered by Mr. Van Deuteronomy Velde in a position exactly in accordance with the notice of Eusebius, viz., six English miles south of Beisan (Scythopolis), end two miles west of the Jordan. Near here is an abundant supply of water. Salma, Or Salmon

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(garment), (Ruth 4:20,21; 1 Chronicles 2:11,51,54; Matthew 1:4,5; Luke 3:32) son of Nahshon. the prince of the children of Judah, and father of Boat, the husband of Ruth. (B.C. 1296.) Bethlehem-ephratah, which was Salmon's inheritance, was part of the territory of Caleb, the grandson of Ephratah; and this caused him to be reckoned among the sons of Caleb. Salmon

the father of Boar. [Salma, Or Salmon] a hill near Shechem, on which Abimelech and his followers cut down the boughs with which they set the tower of Shechem on fire. (Judges 9:48) Its exact position is not known. Referred to in (Psalms 68:14) Salmone

(clothed), the east point of the island of Crete. (Acts 27:7) It is a bold promontory, and is visible for a long distance. Salome

(peaceful). •The wife of Zebedee, (Matthew 27:56; Mark 15:40) and probably sister of Mary the mother of Jesus, to whom reference is made in (John 19:25) The only events recorded of Salome are that she preferred a request on behalf of her two sons for seats of honor in the kingdom of heaven, (Matthew 20:20) that she attended at the crucifixion of Jesus, (Mark 15:40) and that she visited his sepulchre. (Mark 16:1) She is mentioned by name on only the two latter occasions. •The daughter of Herodias by her first husband, Herod Philip. (Matthew 14:6) She married in the first the tetrarch of Trachonitis her paternal uncle, sad secondly Aristobulus, the king of Chalcis. Salt

Indispensable as salt is to ourselves, it was even more so to the Hebrews, being to them not only an appetizing condiment in the food both of man, (Job 11:6) and beset, (Isaiah 30:24) see margin, and a valuable antidote to the effects of the heat of the climate on animal food, but also entering largely into the religious services of the Jews as an accompaniment to the various offerings presented on the altar. (Leviticus 2:13) They possessed an inexhaustible and ready supply of it on the southern shores of the Dead Sea. [Sea, The Salt, THE SALT] There is one mountain here called Jebel Usdum, seven miles long and several hundred feet high, which is composed almost entirely of salt. The Jews appear to have distinguished between rock-salt and that which was gained by evaporation as the Talmudists particularize one species (probably the latter) as the "salt of Sodom." The salt-pits formed an important source of revenue to the rulers of the country, and Antiochus conferred a valuable boon on Jerusalem by presenting the city with 375 bushels of salt for the temple service. As one of the most essential articles of diet, salt symbolized hospitality; as an antiseptic, durability, fidelity and purity. Hence the expression "covenant of salt," (Leviticus 2:13; Numbers 18:19; 2 Chronicles 13:5) as betokening an indissoluble alliance between friends; and again the expression "salted with the salt of the palace." (Ezra 4:14) not necessarily meaning that they had "maintenance from the palace," as Authorized Version has it, but that they were bound by sacred obligations fidelity to the king. So in the present day, "to eat bread and salt together" is an expression for a league of mutual amity. It was probably with a view to keep this idea prominently before the minds of the Jews that the use of salt was enjoined on the Israelites in their offerings to God. Salt Sea, Or Dead Sea

[Sea, The Salt, THE SALT]

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Salt, City Of

the fifth of the six cities of Judah which lay in the "wilderness." (Joshua 15:62) Mr. Robinson expresses his belief that it lay somewhere near the plain at the south end of the Salt Sea. Salt, Valley Of

a valley in which occurred two memorable victories of the Israelite arms: •That of David over the Edomites. (2 Samuel 8:13; 1 Chronicles 18:12) •That of Amaziah. (2 Kings 14:7; 2 Chronicles 25:11) It is perhaps the broad open plain which lies at the lower end of the Dead Sea, and intervenes between the lake itself and the range of heights which crosses the valley at six or eight miles to the south. This same view is taken by Dr. Robinson. Others suggest that it is nearer to Petra. What little can be inferred from the narrative as to its situation favors the latter theory. Salu

(weighed), the father of Zimri the prince of the Simeonites who was slain by Phinehas. (Numbers 25:14) Called also Salom. (B.C.1452.) Salutation

Salutations may be classed under the two heads of conversational and epistolary. The salutation at meeting consisted in early times of various expressions of blessing, such as "God be gracious unto thee," (Genesis 43:29) "The Lord be with you;" "The Lord bless thee." (Ruth 2:4) Hence the term "bless" received the secondary sense of "salute." The salutation at parting consisted originally of a simple blessing, (Genesis 24:60) but in later times the form "Go in peace," or rather "Farewell" (1 Samuel 1:17) was common. In modern times the ordinary mode of address current in the East resembles the Hebrew Es-selam aleykum, "Peace be on you," and the term "salam," peace, has been introduced into our own language to describe the Oriental salutation. In epistolary salutations the writer placed-his own name first, and then that of the person whom he sainted. A form of prayer for spiritual mercies was also used. The concluding salutation consisted generally of the term "I salute," accompanied by a prayer for peace or grace. Samaria

(watch mountain). This city is situated 30 miles north of Jerusalem and about six miles to the northwest of Shechem, in a wide basin-shaped valley, six miles in diameter, encircled with high hills, almost on the edge of the great plain which borders upon the Mediterranean. In the centre of this basin, which is on a lower level than the valley of Shechem, rises a less elevated hill, with steep yet accessible sides and a long fiat top. This hill was chosen by Omri as the site of the capital of the kingdom of Israel. He "bought the hill of Samaria of Shemer for two talents of silver, and built on the hill, and called the name of the city which he built, after the name of the owner of the hill, Samaria." (1 Kings 16:23,24) From the that of Omri's purchase, B.C. 925, Samaria retained its dignity as the capital of the ten tribes, and the name is given to the northern kingdom as well as to the city. Ahab built a temple to Baal there. (1 Kings 16:32,33) It was twice besieged by the Syrians, in B.C. 901, (1 Kings 20:1) and in B.C. 892, (2 Kings 6:24-7; 2 Kings 6:20) but on both occasions the siege was ineffectual. The possessor of Samaria was considered Deuteronomy facto king of Israel. (2 Kings 15:13,14) In B.C. 721 Samaria was taken, after a siege of three years, by Shalmaneser king of Assyria, (2 Kings 18:9,10) and the kingdom of the ten tribes was put an end to. Some years afterward the district of which Samaria was the centre was repeopled by Esarhaddon. Alexander the Great took the city, killed a large portion of the inhabitants, and suffered the remainder to set it at Shechem. He replaced them by a colony of Syro-Macedonians who occupied the city until the

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time of John Hyrcanus, who took it after a year's siege, and did his best to demolish it entirely. (B.C. 109.) It was rebuilt and greatly embellished by Herod the Great. He called it Sebaste=Augusta, after the name of his patron, Augustus Caesar. The wall around it was 2 1/2 miles long, and in the centre of the city was a park 900 feet square containing a magnificent temple dedicated to Caesar. In the New Testament the city itself does not appear to be mentioned; but rather a portion of the district to which, even in older times it had extended its name. (Matthew 10:5; John 4:4,5) At this clay the city is represented by a small village retaining few vestiges of the past except its name, Sebustiyeh, an Arabic corruption of Sebaste. Some architectural remains it has, partly of Christian construction or adaptation, as the ruined church of St. John the Baptist, partly, perhaps, traces of Idumaean magnificence, St. Jerome, whose acquaintance with Palestine imparts a sort of probability to the tradition which prevailed so strongly in later days, asserts that Sebaste, which he invariably identifies with Samaria was the place in which St. John the Baptist was imprisoned and suffered death. He also makes it the burial-place of the prophets Elisha and Obadiah. Samaria, Country Of

Samaria at first included all the tribes over which Jeroboam made himself king, whether east or west of the river Jordan. (1 Kings 13:32) But whatever extent the word might have acquired, it necessarily be came contracted as the limits of the kingdom of Israel became contracted. In all probability the territory of Simeon and that of Dan were very early absorbed in the kingdom of Judah. It is evident from an occurrence in Hezekiah's reign that just before the deposition and death of Hoshea, the last king of Israel, the authority of the king of Judah, or at least his influence, was recognized by portions of Asher, Issachar and Zebulun and even of Ephraim and Manasseh. (2 Chronicles 30:1-26) Men came from all those tribes to the Passover at Jerusalem. This was about B.C. 728. Samaria (the city) and a few adjacent cities or villages only represented that dominion which had once extended from Bethel to Dan northward, and from the Mediterranean to the borders of Syria and Ammon eastward. In New Testament times Sa maria was bounded northward by the range of hills which commences at Mount Carmel on the west, and, after making a bend to the southwest, runs almost due east to the valley of the Jordan, forming the southern border of the plain of Esdraelon. It touched toward the south, is nearly as possible, the northern limits of Benjamin. Thus it comprehended the ancient territory of Ephraim and that of Manasseh west of Jordan. The Cuthaean Samaritans, however, possessed only a few towns and villages of this large area, and these lay almost together in the centre of the district. At Nablus the Samaritans have still a settlement, consisting of about 200 persons. [Shechem] Samaritan Pentateuch

a recension of the commonly received Hebrew text of the Mosaic law, in use among the Samaritans, and written in the ancient Hebrew or so-called Samaritan character. The origin of the Samaritan Pentateuch has given rise to much controversy, into which we cannot here enter. The two most usual opinions are— •That it came into the hands of the Samaritans as an inheritance from the ten tribes whom they succeeded. •That it was introduced by Manasseh at the time of the foundation of the Samaritan sanctuary on Mount Gerizim. It differs in several important points from the Hebrew text. Among these may be mentioned— •Emendations of passages and words of the Hebrew text which contain something objectionable in the eyes of the Samaritans, On account either of historical probability or apparent want of dignity

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in the terms applied to the Creator. Thus in the Samaritan Pentateuch no one in the antediluvian times begets his first son after he has lived 150 years; but one hundred years are, where necessary, subtracted before, and added after, the birth of the first son. An exceedingly important and often-discussed emendation of this class is the passage in (Exodus 12:40) which in our text reads, "Now the sojourning of the children of Israel who dwelt in Egypt was four hundred and thirty years." The Samaritan has "The sojourning of the children of Israel [and their fathers who dwelt in the Land of Cannaan and in the land of Egypt ] was four hundred and thirty years;" an interpolation of very late date indeed. Again, in (Genesis 2:2) "And God [?] had finished on the seventh day," is altered into "the sixth " lest God's rest on the Sabbath day might seem incomplete. •Alterations made in favor of or on behalf of Samaritan theology, hermeneutics and domestic worship. Samaritans

Strictly speaking, a Samaritan would be an inhabitant of the city of Samaria, but the term was applied to all the people of the kingdom of Israel. After the captivity of Israel, B.C. 721, and in our Lord's time, the name was applied to a peculiar people whose origin was in this wise. At the final captivity of Israel by Shalmaneser, we may conclude that the cities of Samaria were not merely partially but wholly depopulated of their inhabitants in B.C. 721, and that they remained in this desolated state until, in the words of (2 Kings 17:24) "the king of Assyria brought men from Babylon and front Cuthah, and from Av. (Ivah,) (2 Kings 18:34) and from Hamath, and front Sepharvaim, and placed them in the cities of Samaria instead of the children of Israel and they possessed Samaria, and dwelt in the cities thereof." Thus the new Samaritans were Assyrians by birth or subjugation. These strangers, whom we will now assume to hare been placed in "the cities of Samaria" by Esar-haddon, were of course idolaters, and worshipped a strange medley of divinities. God's displeasure was kindled, and they were annoyed by beasts of prey, which had probably increased to a great extent before their entrance upon the land. On their explaining their miserable condition to the king of Assyria, he despatched one of the captive priests to teach them "how they should fear the Lord." The priest came accordingly, and henceforth, in the language of the sacred historian, they "Feared the Lord, and served their graven images, both their children and their children's children: as did their fathers, so do the unto this day." (2 Kings 17:41) A gap occurs in their history until Judah has returned from captivity. They then desire to be allowed to participate in the rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem; but on being refused, the Samaritans throw off the mask, and become open enemies, frustrate the operations of the Jews through the reigns of two Persian kings, and are only effectually silenced in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 519. The feud thus unhappily begun grew year by year more inveterate. Matters at length came to a climax. About B.C. 409, a certain Manasseh, a man of priestly lineage, on being expelled from Jerusalem by nehemiah for an unlawful marriage, obtained permission from the Persian king of his day, Darius Nothus, to build a temple on Mount Gerizim for the Samaritans, with whom he had found refuge. The animosity of the Samaritans became more intense than ever. They are sid to have done everything in their power to annoy the Jews. Their own temple on Gerizim they considered to be much superior to that at Jerusalem. There they sacrificed a passover. Toward the mountain, even after the temple on it had fallen, wherever they were they directed their worship. To their copy of the law they arrogated an antiquity and authority greater than attached to any copy in the possession of the Jews. The law (i.e. the five books of Moses) was their sole code; for they rejected every other book in the Jewish canon. The Jews, on the other hand, were not more conciliatory in their treatment of the Samaritans.

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Certain other Jewish renegades had from time to time taken refuge with the Samaritans; hence by degrees the Samaritans claimed to partake of jewish blood, especially if doing so happened to suit their interest. Very far were the Jews from admitting this claim to consanguinity on the part of these people. The traditional hatred in which the jew held the Samaritan is expressed in Ecclus. 50:25,26. Such were the Samaritans of our Lord's day; a people distinct from the jews, though lying in the very midst of the Jews; a people preserving their identity, though seven centuries had rolled away since they had been brought from Assyria by Esar-haddon, and though they had abandoned their polytheism for a sort of ultra Mosaicism; a people who, though their limits had gradually contracted and the rallying-place of their religion on Mount Gerizim had been destroyed one hundred and sixty years before by John Hyrcanus (B.C. 130), and though Samaria (the city) had been again and again destroyed, still preserved their nationality still worshipped from Shechem and their impoverished settlements toward their sacred hill, still retained their peculiar religion, and could not coalesce with the Jews. Samgarnebo

(sword of Nebo), one of the princes or generals of the king of Babylon. (Jeremiah 39:3) Samlah

(garment), (Genesis 36:36,37; 1 Chronicles 1:47,48) one of the kings of Edom, successor to Hadad or Hadar. Samos

a Greek island off that part of Asia Minor where Ionia touches Caria. Samos comes before our notice in the detailed account of St. Paul's return from his third missionary journey. (Acts 20:15) Samothrace

In the Revised Version for Samothracia. Samothracia

Mention is made of this island in the account of St. Paul's first voyage to Europe. (Acts 16:11; 20:6) Being very lofty and conspicuous, it is an excellent landmark for sailors, and must have been full in view, if the weather was clear throughout that voyage from Troas to Neapolis. Samson

(like the sun), son of Manoah, a man of the town of Zorah in the tribe of Dan, on the border of Judah. (Joshua 15:33; 19:41) (B.C. 1161). The miraculous circumstances of his birth are recorded in Judges 13; and the three following chapters are devoted to the history of his life and exploits. Samson takes his place in Scripture, (1) as a judge—an office which he filled for twenty years, (Judges 15:20; 16:31) (2) as a Nazarite, (Judges 13:5; 16:17) and (3) as one endowed with supernatural power by the Spirit of the Lord. (Judges 13:25; 14:6,19; 15:14) As a judge his authority seems to have been limited to the district bordering upon the country of the Philistines. The divine inspiration which Samson shared with Othniel, Gideon and Jephthah assumed in him the unique form of vast personal strength, inseparably connected with the observance of his vow as a Nazarite: "his strength was in his hair." He married a Philistine woman whom he had seen at Timnath. One day, on his way to that city, he was attacked by a lion, which he killed; and again passing that way he saw a swarm of bees in the carcass of the lion, and he ate of the honey, but still he told no one. He availed himself of this circumstance, and of the custom of proposing riddles at marriage feasts, to lay a snare for the Philistines. But Samson told the riddle to his wife and she told it to the men of the city, whereupon Samson slew thirty men of the city. Returning to his own house, he found his wife married to another, and was refused permission to see her. Samson revenged himself by

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taking 300 foxes (or rather jackals) and tying them together two by two by the tails, with a firebrand between every pair of tails, and so he let them loose into the standing corn of the Philistines, which was ready for harvest, The Philistines took vengeance by burning Samson's wife and her father; but he fell hip upon them in return, and smote them with a great slaughter," after which he took refuge on the top of the rock of Etam, in the territory of Judah. The Philistines gathered an army to revenge themselves when the men of Judah hastened to make peace by giving up Samson, who was hound with cords, these, however, he broke like burnt flax and finding a jawbone of an ass at hand, he slew with it a thousand of the Philistines. The supernatural character of this exploit was confirmed by the miraculous bursting out of a spring of water to revive the champion as he was ready to die of thirst. This achievement raised Samson to the position of a judge, which he held for twenty years. After a time he began to fall into the temptations which addressed themselves to his strong animal nature; but he broke through every snare in which he was caught so long as he kept his Nazarite vow. While he was visiting a harlot in Gaza, the Philistines shut the gates of the city, intending to kill him in the morning; but at midnight he went out and tore away the gates, with the posts and bar and carried them to the top of a hill looking toward Hebron. Next he formed his fatal connection with Delilah, a woman who lived in the valley of Sorek. Thrice he suffered himself to be bound with green withes, with new ropes, but released himself until finally, wearied out with her importunity, he "told her all his heart," and while he was asleep she had him shaven of his seven locks of hair. His enemies put out his eyes, and led him down to Gaza, bound in brazen fetters, and made him grind in the prison. Then they held a great festival in the temple of Dagon, to celebrate their victory over Samson. They brought forth the blind champion to make sport for them, end placed him between the two chief pillars which supported the roof that surrounded the court. Samson asked the lad who guided him to let him feel the pillars, to lean upon them. Then, with a fervent prayer that God would strengthen him only this once, to be avenged on the Philistines, he bore with all his might upon the two pillars; they yielded, and the house fell upon the lords and all the people. So the dead which he slew at his death were more than they which he slew in his life." In (Hebrews 11:32) his name is enrolled among the worthies of the Jewish Church. Samuel

was the son of Elkanah and Hannah, and was born at Ramathaim-zophim, among the hills of Ephraim. [Ramah No. 2] (B.C. 1171.) Before his birth he was dedicated by his mother to the office of a Nazarite and when a young child, 12 years old according to Josephus he was placed in the temple, and ministered unto the Lord before Eli." It was while here that he received his first prophetic call. (1 Samuel 3:1-18) He next appears, probably twenty years afterward, suddenly among the people, warning them against their idolatrous practices. (1 Samuel 7:3,4) Then followed Samuel's first and, as far as we know, only military achievement, ch. (1 Samuel 7:5-12) but it was apparently this which raised him to the office of "judge." He visited, in the discharge of his duties as ruler, the three chief sanctuaries on the west of Jordan—Bethel, Gilgal and Mizpeh. ch. (1 Samuel 7:16) His own residence was still native city, Ramah, where he married, and two sons grew up to repeat under his eyes the same perversion of high office that he had himself witnessed in his childhood in the case of the two sons of Eli. In his old age he shared his power with them, (1 Samuel 8:1-4) but the people dissatisfied, demanded a king, and finally anointed under God's direction, and Samuel surrendered to him his authority, (1 Samuel 12:1) ... though still remaining judge. ch. (1 Samuel 7:15) He was consulted far and near on the small affairs of life. (1 Samuel 9:7,8) From this fact, combined with his office of ruler, an awful reverence grew up around him. No sacrificial feast was

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thought complete without his blessing. Ibid. (1 Samuel 9:13) A peculiar virtue was believed to reside in his intercession. After Saul was rejected by God, Samuel anointed David in his place and Samuel became the spiritual father of the psalmist-king. The death of Samuel is described as taking place in the year of the close of David's wanderings. It is said with peculiar emphasis, as if to mark the loss, that "all the Israelites were gathered together" from all parts of this hitherto-divided country, and "lamented him," and "buried him" within his own house, thus in a manner consecrated by being turned into his tomb. (1 Samuel 25:1) Samuel represents the independence of the moral law, of the divine will, as distinct from legal or sacerdotal enactments, which is so remarkable a characteristic of all the later prophets. He is also the founder of the first regular institutions of religious instructions and communities for the purposes of education. Samuel, Books Of

are not separated from each other in the Hebrew MSS., and, from a critical point of view, must be regarded as one book. The present, division was first made in the Septuagint translation, and was adopted in the Vulgate from the Septuagint. The book was called by the Hebrews: "Samuel," probably because the birth and life of Samuel were the subjects treated of in the beginning of the work. The books of Samuel commence with the history of Eli and Samuel, and contain all account of the establishment of the Hebrew monarchy and of the reigns of Saul and David, with the exception of the last days of the latter monarch which are related in the beginning of the books of Kings, of which those of Samuel form the previous portion. [Kings, First And Second Books Of, B00KS OF] Authorship and date of the book,— •As to the authorship. In common with all the historical books of the Old Testament, except the beginning of Nehemiah, the book of Samuel contains no mention in the text of the name of its author. It is indisputable that the title "Samuel" does not imply that the prophet was the author of the book of Samuel as a whole; for the death of Samuel is recorded in the beginning of the 25th chapter. In our own time the most prevalent idea in the Anglican Church seems to have been that the first twenty-four chapters of the book of Samuel were written by the prophet himself, and the rest of the chapters by the prophets Nathan and Gad. This, however, is doubtful. •But although the authorship cannot be ascertained with certainty, it appears clear that, in its present form it must have been composed subsequent to the secession of the ten tribes, B.C. 975. This results from the passage in (1 Samuel 27:6) wherein it is said of David, "Then Achish gave him Ziklag that day wherefore Ziklag pertaineth unto the kings of Judah to this day:" for neither Saul, David nor Solomon is in a single instance called king of Judah simply. On the other hand, it could hardly have been written later than the reformation of Josiah, since it seems to have been composed at a time when the Pentateuch was not acted on as the rule of religious observances, which received a special impetus at the finding of the Book of the Law at the reformation of Josiah. All, therefore, that can be asserted with any certainty is that the book, as a whole, can scarcely have been composed later than the reformation of Josiah, and that it could not have existed in its present form earlier than the reign of Rehoboam. The book of Samuel is one of the best specimens of Hebrew prose in the golden age of Hebrew literature. In prose it holds the same place which Joel and the undisputed prophecies of Isaiah hold in poetical or prophetical language. Sanballat

(strength), a Moabite of Horonaim. (Nehemiah 2:10,13; 13:28) He held apparently some command in Samaria at the time Nehemiah was preparing to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, B.C. 445, (Nehemiah 4:2) and from the moment of Nehemiah's arrival in Judea he set himself to oppose

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every measure for the welfare of Jerusalem. The only other incident in his life is his alliance with the high priest's family by the marriage of his daughter with one of the grandsons of Eliashib; but the expulsion from the priesthood of the guilty son of Joiada by Nehemiah promptly followed. Here the scriptural narrative ends. Sandal

was the article ordinarily used by the Hebrews for protecting the feet. It consisted simply of a sole attached to the foot by thongs. We have express notice of the thong (Authorized Version "shoe latchet") in several passages, notably (Genesis 14:23; Isaiah 5:27; Mark 1:7) Sandals were worn by all classes of society in Palestine, even by the very poor; and both the sandal and the thong or shoe-latchet were so cheap and common that they passed into a proverb for the most insignificant thing. (Genesis 14:23) Ecclus. 46;13, They were dispensed with in-doors, and were only put on by persons about to undertake some business away from their homes. During mealtimes the feet were uncovered. (Luke 7:38; John 13:5,6) It was a mark of reverence to cast off the shoes in approaching a place or person of eminent sanctity. (Exodus 3:5; Joshua 5:15) It was also an indication of violent emotion, or of mourning, if a person appeared barefoot in public. (2 Samuel 15:30) To carry or to unloose a person's sandal was a menial office, betokening great inferiority on the part of the person performing it. (Matthew 3:11) Sanhedrin

(from the Greek sunedrion, "a council-chamber" commonly but in correctly Sanhedrim), the supreme council of the Jewish people in the time of Christ and earlier. •The origin of this assembly is traced in the Mishna to the seventy elders whom Moses was directed, (Numbers 11:16,17) to associate with him in the government of the Israelites; but this tribunal was probably temporary, and did not continue to exist after the Israelites had entered Palestine. In the lack of definite historical information as to the establishment of the Sanhedrin, it can only be said in general that the Greek etymology of the name seems to point to a period subsequent to the Macedonian supremacy in Palestine. From the few incidental notices in the New Testament, we gather that it consisted of chief priests, or the heads of the twenty-four classes into which the priests were divided, elders, men of age and experience, and scribes, lawyers, or those learned in the Jewish law. (Matthew 26:57,59; Mark 15:1; Luke 22:66; Acts 5:21) •The number of members is usually given as 71. The president of this body was styled nasi, and was chosen in account of his eminence in worth and wisdom. Often, if not generally, this pre-eminence was accorded to the high priest. The vice-president, called in the Talmud "father of the house of judgment," sat at the right hand of the president. Some writers speak of a second vice-president, but this is not sufficiently confirmed. While in session the Sanhedrin sat in the form of half-circle. •The place in which the sessions of the Sanhedrin were ordinarily held was, according to the Talmad, a hall called Gazzith, supposed by Lightfoot to have been situated in the southeast corner of one of the courts near the temple building. In special exigencies, however, it seems to have met in the residence of the high priest. (Matthew 26:3) Forty years before the destruction of Jerusalem, and consequently while the Saviour was teaching in Palestine, the sessions of the Sanhedrin were removed from the hall Gazzith to a somewhat greater distance from the temple building, although still on Mount Moriah. After several other changes, its seat was finally established at tiberias, where it became extinct A.D. 425. As a judicial body the Sanhedrin constituted a supreme court, to which belonged in the first instance the trial of false prophets, of the high priest and other priests,

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and also of a tribe fallen into idolatry. As an administrative council, it determined other important matters. Jesus was arraigned before this body as a false prophet, (John 11:47) and Peter, John, Stephen and Paul as teachers of error and deceivers of the people. From (Acts 9:2) it appears that the Sanhedrin exercised a degree of authority beyond the limits of Palestine. According to the Jerusalem Gemara the power of inflicting capital punishment was taken away from this tribunal forty years before the destruction of Jerusalem. With this agrees the answer of the Jews to Pilate. (John 19:31) The Talmud also mentions a lesser Sanhedrin of twenty-three members in every city in Palestine in which were not less than 120 householders. Sansannah

(palm branch), one of the towns in the south district of Judah, named in (Joshua 15:31) only. Saph

(tall), one of the sons of the giant slain by Sibbechai the Hushathite. (2 Samuel 21:18) In (1 Chronicles 20:4) he is called Sippai. (B.C. about 1050.) Saphir

(fair), one of the villages addressed by the prophet Micha, (Micah 1:11) is described by Eusebius and jerome as "in the mountain district between Eleutheropolis and Ascalon," perhaps represented by the village es-Sawafir, seven or eight miles to the northeast of Ascalon. Sapphira

[Ananias] Sapphire

(Heb. sappir), a precious stone, apparently of a bright-blue color, set: (Exodus 24:10) the second stone in the second row of the high priest's breastplate, (Exodus 28:18) extremely precious, (Job 28:16) it was one of the precious stones that ornamented the king of Tyre. (Ezekiel 28:13) The sapphire of the ancients was not our gem of that name, viz. the azure or indigo-blue, crystalline variety of corundum, but our lapis lazuli (ultra-marine). Sara

Greek form of Sarah. Sarah

(princess). •The wife and half-sister, (Genesis 20:12) of Abraham, and mother of Isaac. Her name is first introduced in (Genesis 11:29) as Sarai. The change of her name from Sarai, my princess (i.e. Abraham's), to Sarah, princess (for all the race), was made at the same time that Abram's name was changed to Abraham,—on the establishment of the covenant of circumcision between him and God. Sarah's history is of course that of Abraham. [Abraham] She died at Hebron at the age of 127 years, 28 years before her husband and was buried by him in the cave of (B.C. 1860.) She is referred to in the New Testament as a type of conjugal obedience in (1 Peter 3:6) and as one of the types of faith in (Hebrews 11:11) •Sarah, the daughter of Asher. (Numbers 26:46) Sarai

(my princess) the original name of Sarah wife of Abraham. Saraph

(burning) mentioned in (1 Chronicles 4:22) among the descendants of Judah. Sardine, Sardius

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(red) (Heb. odem) the stone which occupied the first place in the first row of the high priest's breastplate. (Exodus 28:27) The sard, which is probably the stone denoted by odem, is a superior variety of agate, sometimes called camelian, and has long been a favorite stone for the engraver's art. Sardis differ in color: there is a bright-red variety, and perhaps the Hebrew odem from a root means "to be red," points to this kind. Sardis

a city of Asia Minor and capital of Lydia, situated about two miles to the south of the river Hermus, just below the range of Tmolus, on a spur of which its acropolis was built. It was 60 miles northeast of Smyrna. It was the ancient residence of the kings of Lydia, among them Croesus, proverbial for his immense wealth. Cyrus is said to have taken,000,000 worth of treasure form the city when he captured it, B.C. 548. Sardis was in very early times, both from the extremely fertile character of the neighboring region and from its convenient position, a commercial mart of importance. The art of dyeing wool is said to have been invented there. In the year 214 B.C. it was taken and sacked by the army of Antiochus the Great. Afterward it passed under the dominion of the kings of Pergamos. Its productive soil must always have continued a source of wealth; but its importance as a central mart appears to have diminished from the time of the invasion of Asia by Alexander. The massive temple of Cybele still bears witness in its fragmentary remains to the wealth and architectural skill of the people that raised it. On the north side of the acropolis, overlooking the valley of the Hermus, is a theatre near 400 feet in diameter, attached to a stadium of about 1000. There are still considerable remains of the ancient city at Sert-Kalessi . Travellers describe the appearance of the locality as that of complete solitude. The only passage in which it is mentioned in the Bible is (Revelation 3:1-6) Sardites, The

descendants of Sered the son of Zebulun. (Numbers 26:26) (In the Revised Version of (Revelation 4:3) for sardine stone. The name is derived from Sardis, where the stone was first found.) Sardonyx

a name compounded of sard and onyx, two precious stones, varieties of chalcedony or agate. The sardonyx combines the qualities of both, whence its name. It is mentioned only in (Revelation 21:20) The sardonyx consists of "a white opaque layer, superimposed upon a red transparent stratum of the true red sard." It is, like the sard, merely a variety of agate, and is frequently employed by engravers for signet-rings. Sarepta

[Zarephath] Sargon

(prince of the sea), one of the greatest of the Assyrian kings, is mentioned by name but once in Scripture— (Isaiah 20:1) He was the successor of Shalmaneser, and was Sennacherib's father and his reigned from B.C. 721 to 702, and seems to have been a usurper. He was undoubtedly a great and successful warrior. In his annals, which cover a space of fifteen years, from B.C. 721 to 706, he gives an account of his warlike expeditions against Babylonia and Susiana on the south, Media on the east, Armenia and Cappadocia toward the north, Syria, Palestine, Arabia and Egypt toward the west and southwest. In B.C. 712 he took Ashdod, by one of his generals, which is the event which causes the mention of his name in Scripture. It is not as a warrior only that Sargon deserves special mention among the Assyrian kings. He was also the builder of useful works, and of one of the most magnificent of the Assyrian palaces.

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Sarid

(survivor), a chief landmark of the territory of Zebulun. (Joshua 19:10,12) All that can be gathered of its position is that it lay to the west of Chislothtabor. Saron

the district in which Lydda stood, (Acts 9:35) only; the Sharon of the Old Testament. [Sharon] Sarothie

are among the sons of the servants of Solomon who returned with Zerubbabel. 1 Esd. 6:34. Sarsechim

(prince of the eunuchs), one of the generals of Nebuchadnezzar's army at the taking of Jerusalem. (Jeremiah 39:3) (B.C. 588.) Saruch

(Luke 3:25) Serug the son of Reu. Satan

The word itself, the Hebrew satan, is simply an "adversary," and is so used in (1 Samuel 29:4; 2 Samuel 19:22; 1 Kings 6:4; 11:14,23,25; Numbers 22:22,33; Psalms 109:6) This original sense is still found in our Lord's application of the name to St. Peter in (Matthew 16:23) It is used as a proper name or title only four times in the Old Testament, vis. (with the article) in (Job 1:6; 12; 2:1; Zechariah 2:1) and without the article in (1 Chronicles 21:1) It is with the scriptural revelation on the subject that we are here concerned; and it is clear, from this simple enumeration of passages, that it is to be sought in the New rather than in the Old Testament. I. The personal existence of a spirit of evil is clearly revealed in Scripture; but the revelation is made gradually, in accordance with the progressiveness of God's method. In the first entrance of evil into the world, the temptation is referred only to the serpent. In the book of Job we find for the first time a distinct mention of "Satan" the "adversary" of Job. But it is important to remark the emphatic stress laid on his subordinate position, on the absence of all but delegated power, of all terror and all grandeur in his character. It is especially remarkable that no power of spiritual influence, but only a power over outward circumstances, is attributed to him. The captivity brought the Israelites face to face with the great dualism of the Persian mythology, the conflict of Ormuzd with Ahriman, the co-ordinate spirit of evil; but it is confessed by all that the Satan of Scripture bears no resemblance to the Persian Ahriman. His subordination and inferiority are as strongly marked as ever. The New Testament brings plainly forward the power and the influence of Satan, From the beginning of the Gospel, when he appears as the personal tempter of our Lord through all the Gospels, Epistles, and Apocalypse, it is asserted or implied, again and again, as a familiar and important truth. II. Of the nature and original state of Satan, little is revealed in Scripture. He is spoken of as a "spirit" in (Ephesians 2:2) as the prince or ruler of the "demons" in (Matthew 12:24-26) and as having "angels" subject to him in (Matthew 25:41; Revelation 12:7,9) The whole description of his power implies spiritual nature and spiritual influence. We conclude therefore that he was of angelic nature, a rational and spiritual creature, superhuman in power, wisdom and energy; and not only so, but an archangel, one of the "princes" of heaven. We cannot, of course, conceive that anything essentially and originally evil was created by God. We can only conjecture, therefore, that Satan is a fallen angel, who once had a time of probation, but whose condemnation is now irrevocably fixed. As to the time cause and manner of his fall Scripture tells us scarcely anything; but it describes to us distinctly the moral nature of the evil one. The ideal of goodness is made up of the three great moral attributes of God—love, truth, and purity or holiness; combined with that spirit which is the natural

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

temper of the finite and dependent we find creature, the spirit of faith. We find, accordingly, opposites of qualities are dwelt upon as the characteristics of the devil. III. The power of Satan over the soul is represented as exercised either directly or by his instruments. His direct influence over the soul is simply that of a powerful and evil nature on those in whom lurks the germ of the same evil. Besides this direct influence, we learn from Scripture that Satan is the leader of a host of evil spirits or angels who share his evil work, and for whom the "everlasting fire is prepared." (Matthew 25:41) Of their origin and fall we know no more than of his. But one passage (Matthew 12:24-26)—identifies them distinctly with the "demons" (Authorized Version "devils") who had power to possess the souls of men. They are mostly spoken of in Scripture in reference to possession; but in (Ephesians 6:12) find them sharing the enmity to God and are ascribed in various lights. We find them sharing the enmity to God and man implied in the name and nature of Satan; but their power and action are little dwelt upon in comparison with his. But the evil one is not merely the "prince of the demons;" he is called also the "prince of this world" in (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11) and even the. "god of this world" in (2 Corinthians 4:4) the two expressions being united in (Ephesians 6:12) This power he claimed for himself, as the delegated authority, in the temptation of our Lord, (Luke 4:6) and the temptation would have been unreal had he spoken altogether falsely. The indirect action of Satan is best discerned by an examination of the title by which he is designated in Scripture. He is called emphatically ho diabolos, "the devil." The derivation of the word in itself implies only the endeavor to break the bonds between others and "set them at variance;" but common usage adds to this general sense the special idea of "setting at variance by slander." In the application of the title to Satan, both the general and special senses should be kept in view. His general object is to break the bonds of communion between God and man, and the bonds of truth and love which bind men to each other. The slander of God to man is best seen in the words of (Genesis 3:4,5) They attribute selfishness and jealousy to the Giver of all good. The slander of man to God is illustrated by the book of Job. (Job 1:9-11; 2:4,5) IV. The method of satanic action upon the heart itself. It may be summed up in two words—temptation and possession. The subject of temptation is illustrated, not only by abstract statements, but also by the record of the temptations of Adam and of our Lord. It is expressly laid down, as in (James 1:2-4) that "temptation," properly so called, i.e. "trial," is essential to man, and is accordingly ordained for him and sent to him by God, as in (Genesis 22:1) It is this tentability of man, even in his original nature, which is represented in Scripture as giving scope to the evil action of Satan. But in the temptation of a fallen nature Satan has a greater power. Every sin committed makes a man the "servant of sin" for the future, (John 8:34; Romans 6:16) it therefore creates in the spirit of man a positive tendency to evil which sympathizes with, and aids, the temptation of the evil one. On the subject of possession, see Demoniacs. Satyr

(sa'tyr or sat'yr), a sylvan deity or demigod of Greek mythology, represented as a monster, part man and part goat. (Isaiah 13:21; 34:14) The Hebrew word signifies "hairy" or "rough," and is frequently applied to "he-goats." In the passages cited it probably refers to demons of woods and desert places. Comp. (Leviticus 17:7; 2 Chronicles 11:15) Saul

(desired), more accurately Shaul. •One of the early kings of Edom, and successor of Samlah. (Genesis 36:37,38; 1 Chronicles 1:48) (B.C. after 1450.)

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•The first king of Israel, the son of Kish, and of the tribe of Benjamin. (B.C, 1095-1055.) His character is in part illustrated by the fierce, wayward, fitful nature of the tribe and in part accounted for by the struggle between the old and new systems in which he found himself involved. To this we must add a taint of madness. which broke out in violent frenzy at times leaving him with long lucid intervals. He was remarkable for his strength and activity, (2 Samuel 1:25) and, like the Homeric heroes, of gigantic stature, taller by head and shoulders than the rest of the people, and of that kind of beauty denoted by the Hebrew word "good," (1 Samuel 9:2) and which caused him to be compared to the gazelle, "the gazelle of Israel." His birthplace is not expressly mentioned; but, as Zelah in Benjamin was the place of Kish's sepulchre. (2 Samuel 21:14) it was probable; his native village. His father, Kish, was a powerful and wealthy chief though the family to which he belonged was of little importance. (1 Samuel 9:1,21) A portion of his property consisted of a drove of asses. In search of these asses, gone astray on the mountains, he sent his son Saul It was while prosecuting this adventure that Saul met with Samuel for the first time at his home in Ramah, five miles north of Jerusalem. A divine intimation had made known to him the approach of Saul, whom he treated with special favor, and the next morning descending with him to the skirts of the town, Samuel poured over Saul's head the consecrated oil, and with a kiss of salutation announced to him that he was to be the ruler of the nation. (1 Samuel 9:25; 1 Samuel 10:1) Returning homeward his call was confirmed by the incidents which according to Samuel's prediction, awaited him. (1 Samuel 10:9,10) What may be named the public call occurred at Mizpeh, when lots were cast to find the tribe and family which was to produce the king, and Saul, by a divine intimation was found hid in the circle of baggage which surrounded the encampment. (1 Samuel 10:17-24) Returning to Gibeah, apparently to private life, he heard the threat issued by Nahash king of Ammon against Jabesh-gilead. He speedily collected an army, and Jabesh was rescued. The effect was instantaneous on the people, and the monarchy was inaugurated anew at Gilgal. (1 Samuel 11:1-15) It should be, however, observed that according to (1 Samuel 12:12) the affair of Nahash preceded and occasioned the election of Saul. Although king of Israel, his rule was at first limited; but in the second year of his reign he began to organize an attempt to shake off the Philistine yoke, and an army was formed. In this crisis, Saul, now on the very confines of his kingdom at Gilgal, impatient at Samuel's delay, whom he had directed to be present, offered sacrifice himself. Samuel, arriving later, pronounced the first curse, on his impetuous zeal. (1 Samuel 13:5-14) After the Philistines were driven back to their own country occurred the first appearance of Saul's madness in the rash vow which all but cost the life of his soil. (1 Samuel 14:24; 44) The expulsion of the Philistines, although not entirely completed, ch. (1 Samuel 14:52) at once placed Saul in a position higher than that of any previous ruler of Israel, and he made war upon the neighboring tribes. In the war with Amalek, ch. (1 Samuel 14:48; 15:1-9) he disobeyed the prophetical command of Samuel, which called down the second curse, and the first distinct intimation of the transference of the kingdom to a rival. The rest of Saul's life is one long tragedy. The frenzy which had given indications of itself before now at times took almost entire possession of him. In this crisis David was recommended to him. From this time forward their lives are blended together. [David] In Saul's better moments he never lost the strong affection which he had contracted for David. Occasionally, too his prophetical gift returned, blended with his madness. (2 Samuel 19:24) But his acts of fierce, wild zeal increased. At last the monarchy itself broke down under the weakness of his head. The Philistines re-entered the country, and just before giving them battle Saul's courage failed and he consulted one of the necromancers, the "Witch of Endor," who had escaped his

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persecution. At this distance of time it is impossible to determine the relative amount of fraud or of reality in the scene which follows, though the obvious meaning of the narrative itself tends to the hypothesis of some kind of apparition. ch. (2 Samuel 19:28) On hearing the denunciation which the apparition conveyed, Saul fell the whole length of his gigantic stature on the ground, and remained motionless till the woman and his servants forced him to eat. The next day the battle came on. The Israelites were driven up the side of Gilboa. The three sons of Saul were slain. Saul was wounded. According to one account, he fell upon his own sword, (1 Samuel 31:4) and died. The body on being found by the Philistines was stripped slid decapitated, and the headless trunk hung over the city walls, with those of his three sons. ch. (1 Samuel 31:9,10) The head was deposited (probably at Ashdod) in the temple of Dagon (1 Chronicles 10:10) The corpse was buried at Jabesh-gilead. (1 Samuel 31:13) •The Jewish name of St. Paul. Saw

Egyptian saws, so far as has yet been discovered, are single-handed. As is the case in modern Oriental saws, the teeth usually incline toward the handle, instead of away from it like ours. They have, in most cases, bronze blades, apparently attached to the handles by leathern thongs. No evidence exists of the use of the saw applied to stone in Egypt, but we read of sawn stones used in the temple. (1 Kings 7:9) The saws "under" or "in" which David is said to have placed his captives were of iron. The expression in (2 Samuel 12:31) does not necessarily imply torture, but the word "cut" in (1 Chronicles 20:3) can hardly be understood otherwise. Scapegoat

[Atonement, The Day Of, Day OF] Scarlet

[Colors] Sceptre

This word originally meant a rod or staff . It was thence specifically applied to the shepherd's crook, (Leviticus 27:32; Micah 7:14) and to the wand or sceptre of a ruler. The allusions to it are all of a metaphorical character, and describe it simply as one of the insignia of supreme power. (Genesis 49:10) We are consequently unable to describe the article from any biblical notice we may infer that it was probably made of wood. The sceptre of the Persian monarch is described as "golden" i.e. probably of massive gold. (Esther 4:11) Sceva

a Jew residing at Ephesus at the time of St. Paul's second visit to that town. (Acts 19:14-16) (A.D. 52.) Schools

(In the early ages most of the instruction of young children was by the parents. The leisure hours of the Sabbaths and festival days brought the parents in constant contact with the children. After the captivity schools came more into use, and at the time of Christ were very abundant. The schools were in connection with the synagogues, which were found in every village of the city and land. Their idea of the value of schools may be gained from such sayings from the Talmud as "The world is preserved by the breath of the children in the schools;" "A town in which there are no schools must perish;" "Jerusalem was destroyed because the education of children was neglected." Josephus says, "Our principal care is to educate our children." The Talmud states that in Bechar there were 400 schools, having each 400 teachers, with 400 children each and that there were 4000

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

pupils in the house of Rabban Simeon Ben-Gamaliel. Maimonides thus describes a school: "The teacher sat at the head, and the pupils surrounded him as the crown the head so that every one could see the teacher and hear his words. The teacher did not sit in a chair while the pupils sat on the ground but all either sat on chairs or on the ground." The children read aloud to acquire fluency. The number of school-hours was limited, and during the heat of the summer was only four hours. The punishment employed was beating with a strap, never with a rod. The chief studies were their own language and literature the chief school-book the Holy Scriptures; and there were special efforts to impress lessons of morality and chastity. Besides these they studied mathematics, astronomy and the natural sciences. Beyond the schools for popular education there were higher schools or colleges scattered throughout the cities where the Jews abounded.—ED.) Scorpion

(Heb. 'akrab), a well known venomous insect of hot climates, shaped much like a lobster. It is usually not more than two or three inches long, but in tropical climates is sometimes six inches in length. The wilderness of Sinai is especially alluded to as being inhabited by scorpions at the time of the exodus, and to this day these animals are common in the same district, as well as in some parts of Palestine. Scorpions are generally found in dry and in dark places, under stones and in ruins. They are carnivorous in the habits, and move along in a threatening attitude, with the tail elevated. The sting, which is situated at the end of the tail, has at its base a gland that secretes a poisonous fluid, which is discharged into the wound by two minute orifices at its extremity. In hot climates the sting often occasions much suffering, and sometimes alarming symptoms. The "scorpions" of (1 Kings 12:1,14; 2 Chronicles 10:11,14) have clearly no allusion whatever to the animal, but to some instrument of scourging—unless indeed the expression is a mere figure. Scourging

The punishment of scourging was common among the Jews. The instrument of punishment in ancient Egypt, as it is also in modern times generally in the East, was usually the stick, applied to the soles of the feet—bastinado. Under the Roman method the culprit was stripped, stretched with cords or thongs on a frame and beaten with rods. (Another form of the scourge consisted of a handle with three lashes or thongs of leather or cord, sometimes with pieces of metal fastened to them. Roman citizens were exempt by their law from scourging.) Scribes

(Heb.sopherim), I. Name .— (1) Three meanings are connected with the verb saphar, the root of sopherim— (a) to write, (b) to set in order, (c) to count. The explanation of the word has been referred to each of these. The sopherim were so called because they wrote out the law, or because they classified and arranged its precepts, or because they counted with scrupulous minuteness every elapse and letter It contained. (2) The name of Kirjath-sepher, (Joshua 15:15; Judges 1:12) may possibly connect itself with some early use of the title, and appears to point to military functions of some kind. (Judges 5:14) The men are mentioned as filling the office of scribe under David and Solomon. (2 Samuel 8:17; 20:25; 1 Kings 4:3) We may think of them as the king's secretaries, writing his letters, drawing up his decrees, managing his finances. Comp (2 Kings 12:10) In Hezekiah's time transcribed old records, and became a class of students and interpreters of the law, boasting of their wisdom. (Jeremiah 8:8) After the captivity the office became more prominent, as the exiles would be anxious above all things to preserve the sacred books, the laws, the hymns, the prophecies of the past. II. Development of doctrine .—Of the scribes of this period, with the exception of Ezra and Zadok, (Nehemiah 13:13) we have no record. A later age honored them collectively

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

as the men of the Great Synagogue. Never perhaps, was so important a work done so silently. They devoted themselves to the careful study of the text, and laid down rules for transcribing it with the most scrupulous precision. As time passed on the "words of the scribes" were honored above the law. It was a greater crime to offend against them than against the law. The first step was taken toward annulling the commandments of God for the sake of their own traditions. (Mark 7:13) The casuistry became at once subtle and prurient, evading the plainest duties, tampering with conscience. (Matthew 15:1-6; 23:16-23) We can therefore understand why they were constantly denounced by our Lord along with the Pharisees. While the scribes repeated the traditions of the elders, he "spake as one having authority," "not as the scribes." (Matthew 7:29) While they confined their teachings to the class of scholars, he "had compassion on the multitudes." (Matthew 9:36) While they were to be found only in the council or in their schools, he journeyed through the cities and villages. (Matthew 4:23; 9:35) etc. While they spoke of the kingdom of God vaguely, as a thing far off, he proclaimed that it had already come nigh to men. (Matthew 4:17) In our Lord's time there were two chief parties: •the disciples of Shammai, conspicuous for their fierceness, appealing to popular passions, using the sword to decide their controversies. Out of this party grew the Zealots. •The disciples of Hillel, born B.C. 112, and who may have been one of the doctors before whom the boy Jesus came in the temple, for he lived to be 120 years old. Hillel was a "liberal conservative, of genial character and broad range of thought, with some approximations to a higher teaching." In most of the points at issue between the two parties, Jesus must have appeared in direct antagonism to the school of Shammai, in sympathy with that of Hillel. So far, on the other hand, as the temper of the Hillel school was one of mere adaptation to the feeling of the people, cleaving to tradition, wanting in the intuition of a higher life, the teaching of Christ must have been felt as unsparingly condemning it. III. Education and life.—The special training for a scribe's office began, probably, about the age of thirteen. The boy who was destined by his parents to the calling of a scribe went to Jerusalem and applied for admission in the school of some famous rabbi. After a sufficient period of training, probably at the age of thirty the probationer was solemnly admitted to his office. After his admission there was a choice of a variety of functions, the chances of failure and success. He might give himself to any one of the branches of study, or combine two or more of them. He might rise to high places, become a doctor of the law, an arbitrator in family litigations, (Luke 12:14) the head of a school, a member of the Sanhedrin. He might have to content himself with the humbler work of a transcriber, copying the law and the prophets for the use of synagogues, or a notary, writing out contracts of sale, covenants of espousals, bills of repudiation. The position of the more fortunate was of course attractive enough. In our Lord's time the passion for distinction was insatiable. The ascending scale of rab, rabbi, rabban, presented so many steps on the ladder of ambition. Other forms of worldliness were not far off. The salutations in the market-place, (Matthew 23:7) the reverential kiss offered by the scholars to their master or by rabbis to each other the greeting of Abba, father (Matthew 23:9) the long robes with the broad blue fringe, (Matthew 23:5)—all these go to make up the picture of a scribe's life. Drawing to themselves, as they did, nearly all the energy and thought of Judaism, the close hereditary caste of the priesthood was powerless to compete with them. Unless the Priest became a scribe also, he remained in obscurity. The order, as such, became contemptible and base. For the scribes there were the best places at feasts, the chief seats in synagogues. (Matthew 23:6; Luke 14:7) Scrip

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

The Hebrew word thus translated appears in (1 Samuel 17:40) as a synonym for the bag in which the shepherds of Palestine carried their food or other necessities. The scrip of the Galilean peasants was of leather, used especially to carry their food on a journey, and slung over their shoulders. (Matthew 10:10; Mark 6:8; Luke 9:3; 22:35) The English word "scrip" is probably connected with scrape, scrap, and was used in like manner for articles of food. Scripture

[See Bible] Scythian

occurs in (Colossians 3:11) as a generalized term for rude, ignorant, degraded. The name often included all the nomadic tribes, who dwelt mostly on the north of the Black and the Caspian Sea, stretching thence indefinitely into inner Asia, and were regarded by the ancients as standing extremely low In point of intelligence and civilization. Scythopolis

[BETH-SHEAN] Sea

The sea, yam, is used in Scripture to denote— •"The gathering of the waters," "the Ocean." (Genesis 1:2,10; 30:13) etc. •Some portion of this, as the Mediterranean Sea, called the "hinder," the "western" and the "utmost" sea, (11:24; 34:2; Joel 2:20) "sea of the Philistines," (Exodus 23:31) "the great sea," (Numbers 36:6,7; Joshua 15:47) "the sea." Genesis49:13; Psal 80:11 Also frequently of the Red Sea. (Exodus 15:4) [Red Sea SEA] •Inland lakes termed seas, as the Salt or Dead Sea. [See the special article] •Any great collection of waters, as the river Nile (Isaiah 19:5) and the Euphrates. (Jeremiah 51:36) Sea, Molten

In the place of the laver of the tabernacle Solomon caused a laver to be cast for a similar purpose, which from its size was called a sea. It was made partly or wholly of the brass, or rather copper, which was captured by David from "Tibhath and Chun, cities of Hadarezer king of Zobah." (1 Kings 7:23-26; 1 Chronicles 18:8) It is said to have been 15 feet in diameter and 7 1/2 feet deep, and to have been capable of containing 2000, or according to (2 Chronicles 4:5) 3000 Baths (16,000 to 24,000 gallons). The lever stood on twelve oxen three toward each quarter of the heavens, and all looking outward. It was mutilated by Ahaz by being removed from its basis of oxen and placed on a stone base, and was finally broken up by the Assyrians. (2 Kings 16:14,17; 25:13) Sea, The Salt

the usual and perhaps the most ancient name for the remarkable lake which to the western world is now generally known as the Dead Sea. I. Names.— (1) The Salt Sea, (Genesis 14:3) (2) Sea of the Arabah (Authorized Version "sea of the plain," which is found in (4:49)); (3) The East Sea (Joel 2:20) (4) The sea, (Ezekiel 47:8) (5) Sodomitish Sea, 2 Esdras; (6) Sea of Salt and Sea of Sodom, in the Talmud; (7) The Asphaltic Lake, in Josephus; (8) The name "Dead Sea" appears to have been first used in Greek by Pausanias and Galen, and in Latin (mare mortuum) by Justin xxxvi. 3,6, or rather by the older historian Trogus Pompeius (cir. B.C. 10), whose work he epitomized. (9) The Arabic name is Bahr Lut, the "Sea of Lot." II Description .—The so-called Dead Sea is the final receptacle of the river Jordan, the lowest and largest of the three lakes which interrupt the rush of its downward course. It is the deepest portion of that very deep natural fissure which runs like a furrow from the Gulf of Akabah to the range of Lebanon, and from the range of Lebanon to

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the extreme north of Syria. Viewed on the map, the lake is of an oblong form, of tolerably regular contour, interrupted only by a large and long peninsula which projects from the eastern shore near its southern end, and virtually divides the expanse of the water into two portions, connected by a long, narrow and somewhat devious passage. Its surface is from north to south as nearly as possible 40 geographical or 46 English miles long. Its greatest width is about 9 geographical or 10 1/2 English miles. Its area is about 250 geographical square miles. At its northern end the lake receives the stream of the Jordan; on its eastern side the Zurka Ma'in (the ancient Callirrhoe, and possibly the more ancient en-Eglaim), the Mojib (the Arnon of the Bible), and the Beni-Hemad ; on the south the Kurahy or el-Ahsy ; and on the west that of Ain Jidy . The depression of its surface, and the depth which it attains below that surface, combined with the absence of any outlet, render it one of the most remarkable spots on the globe. The surface of the lake in May, 1848, was 1316.7 feet below the level of the Mediterranean at Jaffa. Its depth, at about one third of its length from the north end, is 1308 feet. The water of the lake is not less remarkable than its other features. Its most obvious peculiarity is its great weight. Its specific gravity has been found to be as much as 12.28; that is to say, a gallon of it would weigh over 12 1/4 lbs., instead of 10 lbs., the weight of distilled water. Water so heavy must not only be extremely buoyant, but must possess great inertia. Its buoyancy is a common theme of remark by the travellers who have been upon it or in it. Dr. Robinson "could never swim before, either in fresh or salt water," yet here he "could sit, stand, lie or swim without difficulty." (B.R.i.506.) The remarkable weight of the water is due to the very large quantity of mineral salts which it holds in solution. Each gallon of the water, weighing 12 1/4 lbs., contains nearly 3 1/3 lbs. of matter in solution—an immense quantity when we recollect that seawater, weighing 10 1/4 lbs. per gallon, contains less than 1/2 a lb. Of this 3 1/2 lbs. nearly 1 lb. is common salt (chloride of sodium), about 2 lbs. chloride of magnesium, and less than 3 a lb. chloride of calcium (or muriate of lime). The most usual ingredient is bromide of magnesium, which exists in truly extraordinary quantity. It has been long supposed that no life whatever existed in the lake; but recent facts show that some inferior organizations do find a home even in these salt and acrid waters. The statements of ancient travellers and geographers to the effect that no living creature could exist on the shores of the lake, or bird fly across its surface, are amply disproved by later travellers. The springs on the margin of the lake harbor snipe, partridges, ducks, nightingales and other birds as well as frogs; and hawks, doves and hares are found along the shore. The appearance of the lake does not fulfill the idea conveyed by its popular name. "The Dead Sea," says a recent traveller, "did not strike me with that sense of desolation and dreariness which I suppose it ought. I thought it a pretty, smiling lake—a nice ripple on its surface." The truth lies, as usual, somewhere between these two extremes. On the one hand, the lake certainly is not a gloomy, deadly, smoking gulf. In this respect it does not at all fulfill the promise of its name. At sunrise and sunset the scene must be astonishingly beautiful. But on the other hand, there is something in the prevalent sterility and the dry, burnt look of the shores, the overpowering heat, the occasional smell of sulphur, the dreary salt marsh at the southern end, and the fringe of dead driftwood round the margin, which must go far to excuse the title which so many ages have attached to the lake, and which we may be sure it will never lose. The connection between this singular lake and the biblical history is very slight. In the topographical records of the Pentateuch and the book of Joshua it forms one among the landmarks of the boundaries of the whole country, as well as of the inferior divisions of Judah and Benjamin. As a landmark it is once named in what to be a quotation from a lost work of the prophet Jonah, (2 Kings 14:25) itself apparently a reminiscence of the old Mosaic statement.

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(Numbers 34:8,12) Besides this the name occurs once twice in the imagery of the prophets the New Testament there is not even an allusion to it. There is however, one passage in which the "Salt Sea" is mentioned in a manner different from any of those already quoted viz. as having been in the time of Abraham the vale of Siddim. (Genesis 14:3) In consequence of this passage it has been believed that the present lake covered a district which in historic times had been permanently habitable dry land. But it must not he overlooked that the passage in question is the only one in the whole Bible to countenance the notion that the cities of the plain were submerged; a notion which does not date earlier than the Christian era. [Sodom; Zoar] The belief which prompted the idea of some modern writers that the Dead Sea was formed by the catastrophe which overthrew the "cities of the plain" is a mere assumption. It is not only unsupported by Scripture, but is directly in the teeth of the evidence of the ground itself of the situation of those cities, we only know that, being in the "plain of the Jordan, they must have been to the north of the lake. Of the catastrophe which destroyed them we only know that it is described as a shower of ignited sulphur descending from the skies. Its date is uncertain, but we shall be safe in placing it within the Limit of 2000 years before Christ. (It is supposed that only the southern bay of the Dead Sea was formed by the submergence of the cities of the plain, and is still probable. If Hugh Miller's theory of the flood in correct—and it is the most reasonable theory yet propounded—then the Dead Sea was formed by the depression of that part of the valley through which the Jordan once flowed to the Red Sea. But this great depression caused all the waters of the Jordan to remain without outlet, and the size of the Dead Sea must be such that the evaporation from its surface just balances the amount of water which flows in through the river. This accounts in part for the amount of matter held in solution by the Dead Sea waters; for the evaporation is of pure water only, while the inflow contains more or less of salts and other matter in solution. This theory also renders it probable that the lake was at first considerably larger than at present, for in earlier times the Jordan had probably a larger flow of water.—ED.) The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah may have been by volcanic action, but it may be safely asserted that no traces of it have yet been discovered, and that, whatever it was, it can have had no connection with that far vaster and far more ancient event which opened the great valley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, and at some subsequent time cut it off from communication with the Red Sea by forcing up between them the tract of the Wady Arabah . Seal

The importance attached to seals in the East is so great that without one no document is regarded as authentic. Among the methods of sealing used in Egypt at a very early period were engraved stones, graved stones, pierced through their length and hung by a string or chain from the arm or neck, or set in rings for the finger. The most ancient form used for this purpose was the scarabaeus, formed of precious or common stone, or even of blue pottery or porcelain, on the flat side of which the inscription or device was engraved. In many cases the seal consisted of a lump of clay, impressed with the seal and attached to the document, whether of papyrus or other material, by strings. In other cases wax was used. In sealing a sepulchre or box, the fastening was covered with clay or wax, and the impression from a seal of one in authority was stamped upon it, so that it could not be broken open without discovery. The signet-ring was an ordinary part of a man's equipment. (Genesis 38:18) The ring or the seal as an emblem of authority in Egypt, Persia and elsewhere is mentioned in (Genesis 41:42; 1 Kings 21:8; Esther 3:10,12; 8:2; Daniel 6:17) and as an evidence of a covenant, in (Jeremiah 32:10,44; Nehemiah 9:38; 10:1; Haggai 2:23) Engraved signets were in use among the Hebrews in early times. (Exodus 28:11,36; 39:6)

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Seba

(pl. Sebaim ; in Authorized Version incorrectly rendered Sabeans) heads the list of the sons of Cush. Besides the mention of Seba in the lists of the pens of Cush, (Genesis 10:7; 1 Chronicles 1:9) there are but three notices of the nation— (Psalms 72:10; Isaiah 43:3; 45:14) These passages seem to show that Seba was a nation of Africa bordering on or included in Cush, and in Solomon's time independent and of political importance. It may perhaps be identified with the island of Meroe. Josephus says that Saba was the ancient name of the Ethiopian island and city of Meroe, but he writes Seba, in the notice of the Noachian settlements, Sabas. The island of Meroe lay between the Astaboras, the Atbara, the most northern tributary of the Nile, and the Astapus, the Bahr el-Azrak, "Blue River," the eastern of its two great confluents. Sebat

(a rod). [Month] Secacah, Or Secacah

(thicket), one of the six cities of Judah which were situated in the Midbar ("wilderness"), that is, the tract bordering on the Dead Sea. (Joshua 15:61) Its portion is not known. Sechu

(the watch-tower), a place mentioned once only— (1 Samuel 19:22)—apparently as lying on the route between Saul's residence, Gibeah, and Ramah (Ramathaim-zophim), that of Samuel. It was notorious for "the great well" (or rather cistern) which it contained. Assuming that Saul started from Gibeah (Tuleil el-Ful), and that Neby Samwil is Ramah, then Bir Nebolla (the well of Neballa) just south of Beeroth, alleged by modern traveller to contain a large pit would be in a suitable position for the great well of Sechu. Secundus

(fortunate), a Thessalonian Christian. (Acts 20:4) (A.D. 55.) Seer, [Prophet] Segub

(elevated). •The youngest son of Hiel the Hethelite who rebuilt Jericho. (1 Kings 18:34) (B.C. about 910.) •Son of Hezron. (1 Chronicles 2:21,28) (B.C. about 1682.) Seir

(hairy, Shaggy), •We have both "land of Seir," (Genesis 32:3; 36:50) and "Mount Seir." (Genesis 14:6) It is the original name of the mountain range extending along the east side of the valley of Arabah, from the Dead Sea to the Elanitic, Golf. The Horites appear to have been the chief of the aboriginal inhabitants, (Genesis 36:20) but it was ever afterward the possession of the Edomites, the descendants of Esau. The Mount Seir of the: Bible extended much farther south than the modern province, as is shown by the words of (2:1-8) It had the Arabah on the west, vs. 1 and 8; it extended as far south as the head of the Gulf of Akabah, ver. 8; its eastern border ran along the base of the mountain range where the plateau of Arabia begins. Its northern, order is not so accurately determined. There is a line of "naked" white hills or cliffs which run across the great valley about eight miles south of the Dead Sea, the highest eminence being Mount Hor, which is 4800 feet high. •Mount Seir, an entirely different place from the foregoing; one of the landmarks on the north boundary of the territory of Judah. (Joshua 15:10) only. It lay westward of Kirjath-jearim, and between it and Beth-shemesh. If Kuriel el-Enab be the former and Ain-shems the latter of these

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two, then Mount Seir cannot fail to be the ridge which lies between the Wady Aly and the Wady Ghurab . In a pass of this ridge is the modern village of Seir. Seirath

(the shaggy), the place to which Ehud fled after his murder of Eglon. (Judges 3:26,27) It was in "Mount Ephraim," ver. 27, a continuation, perhaps, of the same wooded, shaggy hills which stretched even so far south as to enter the territory of Judah, (Joshua 15:10) (It is probably the same place as Mount, Mount, Mountain Seir, 2.) Sela, Or Selah

(the rock), (2 Kings 14:7; Isaiah 16:1) so rendered in the Authorized Version in Judges city later (2 Chronicles 25:12) probably known as Petra, the ruins of which are found about two days journey north of the top of the Gulf of Akabah and three or four south from Jericho and about halfway between the southern end of the Dead Sea and the northern end of the Gulf of Akabah. It was in the midst of Mount Seir, in the neighborhood of Mount Hor, and therefore Edomite territory, taken by Amaziah, and called Joktheel. In the end of the fourth century B.C. it appears as the headquarters of the Nabatheans, who successfully resisted the attacks of Antigonus. About 70 B.C. Petra appears as the residence of the Arab princes named Aretas. It was by Trajan reduced to subjection to the Roman empire. The city Petra lay, though at a high level, in a hollow three quarters of a mile long and from 800 to 1500 feet wide, shut in by mountain cliffs, and approached only by a narrow ravine, through which, and across the city's site, the river winds. There are extensive ruins at Petra of Roman date, which have been frequently described by modern travellers. Selah

This word, which is found only in the poetical books of the Old Testament, occurs seventy-one times in the Psalms and three times in Habakkuk. It is probably a term which had a meaning in the musical nomenclature of the Hebrews, though what that meaning may have been is now a matter of pure conjecture. (Gesenius and Ewald and others think it has much the same meaning as our interlude,—a pause in the voices singing, while the instruments perform alone.) Selahammahlekoth

(the cliff of escapes or of divisions), a rock or cliff in the wilderness of Maon, southeast of Hebron, the scene of one of those remarkable escapes which are so frequent in the history of Saul's pursuit of David. (1 Samuel 23:28) Seled

(exultation), one of the sons of Nadab, a descendant of Jerahmeel: (1 Chronicles 2:30) (B.C. after 1450.) Seleucia, Or Seleucia

(named after its founder, Seleucus), near the mouth of the Orontes, was practically the seaport of Antioch. The distance between the two towns was about 16 miles. St. Paul, with Barnabas, sailed from Seleucia at the beginning of his first missionary circuit. (Acts 13:4) This strong fortress and convenient seaport was constructed by the first Seleucus, and here he was buried. It retained its importance in Roman times and in St. Paul's day it had the privileges of a free city. The remains are numerous. Seleucus

the name of five kings of the Greek dominion of Syria who are hence called Seleucidae . Only one—the fourth—is mentioned in the Apocrypha. Seleucus Iv

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(Philopator), son of Antiochus the Great, whom he succeeded B.C. 187 "king of Asia," 2 Macc. 3:3, that is, of the provinces included in the Syrian monarchy, according to the title claimed by the Seleucidae, even when they had lost their footing in Asia Minor. He took part in the disastrous battle of Magnesia, B.C. 190, and three years afterward, on the death of his father, ascended the throne. He was murdered B.C. 175 after a reign of twelve years, by Heliodorus, one of his own courtiers. (Daniel 11:20) His son Demetrius I. (Soter) whom he had sent while still a boy, as hostage to Rome, after a series of romantic adventures, gained the crown in 162 B.C. 1 Macc. 7:1; 2 Macc. 14:1. The general policy of Seleucus toward the Jews, like that of his father, 2 Macc. 3:2,3, was conciliatory, and he undertook a large share of expenses of the temple service. 2 Macc. 3:3,6. Sem

Shem the patriarch. (Luke 3:36) Semachiah

(Jehovah sustains him) one of the sons of SKEMAIAH, 9. (1 Chronicles 26:7) Semei

(the Greek form of Shimei). •Shimei, 14. 1 Esd. 9:33. •Shimei, 16. (Esther 11:2) •The father of Mattathias in the genealogy of Jesus Christ. (Luke 3:26) Semein

In the Revised Version of (Luke 3:26) for Semei. Semitic Languages

[Shemitic Languages LANGUAGES; Hebrew Language] Senaah

(thorny). The "children (i.e. the inhabitants) of Senaah" are enumerated among the "people of Israel" who returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:35; Nehemiah 7:38) (B.C. 536.) The Magdal Senna of Eusebius and Jerome denotes a town seven miles north of Jericho ("Senna"). Seneh

(thorn), the name of one of the two isolated rocks which stood in the "passage of Michmash," (1 Samuel 14:4) 6 1/2 Miles north of Jerusalem. Senir

(snow mountain), (1 Chronicles 5:23; Ezekiel 27:5) the Amorite name for Mount Hermon. Sennacherib, Or Sennacherib

(sin, the moon, increases brothers), was the son and successor of Sargon. [Sargon] His name in the original is read as Tsinakki-irib, the meaning of which, as given above indicates that he was not the first-born of his father. Sennacherib mounted the throne B.C. 702. His efforts were directed to crushing the revolt of Babylonia, which he invaded with a large army. Merodach-baladan ventured on a battle, but was defeated and driven from the country. In his third year, B.C. 700, Sennacherib turned his arms toward the west, chastised Sidon, and, having probably concluded a convention with his chief enemy finally marched against Hezekiah, king of Judah. It was at this time that "Sennacherib came up against all the fenced cities of Judah, and took them." (2 Kings 18:13) There can be no doubt that the record which he has left of his campaign against "Hiskiah" in his third year is the war with Hezekiah so briefly touched in vs. 13-16 of this chapter. In the following year (B.C. 699) Sennacherib made his second expedition into Palestine. Hezekiah had again revolted, and claimed the protection of Egypt. Sennacherib therefore attacked Egypt, and from his camp at

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Lachish and Libnah he sent an insulting letter to Hezekiah at Jerusalem. In answer to Hezekiah's prayer an event occurred which relieved both Egypt and Judea from their danger. In one night the Assyrians lost, either by a pestilence or by some more awful manifestation of divine power, 185,000 men! The camp immediately broke up; the king fled. Sennacherib reached his capital in safety, and was not deterred by the terrible disaster which had befallen his arms from engaging in other wars, though he seems thenceforward to have carefully avoided Palestine. Sennacherib reigned 22 years and was succeeded by Esar-haddon, B.C. 680. Sennacherib was one of the most magnificent of the Assyrian kings. Seems to have been the first who fixed the seat of government permanently at Nineveh, which he carefully repaired and adorned with splendid buildings. His greatest work is the grand palace Kouyunjik. Of the death of Sennacherib nothing is known beyond the brief statement of Scripture that "as he was worshipping in the house of Nisroch his god, Adrammelech and Sharezer his sons smote him with the sword and escaped into the land of Armenia." (2 Kings 19:37; Isaiah 37:38) Senuah

(bristling, properly Hassenuah, with the definite article), a Benjamite. (Nehemiah 11:9) Seorim

(barley), the chief of the fourth of the twenty-four courses of priests. (1 Chronicles 24:8) Sephar

(a numbering). It is written after the enumeration of the sons of Joktan, "And their dwelling was from Mesha as thou goest unto Sephar a mount of the east." (Genesis 10:30) The Joktanites occupied the southwestern portion of the peninsula of Arabia. The undoubted identifications of Arabian places and tribes with their Joktanite originals are included within these limits, and point to Sephar, on the shore of the Indian Ocean, as the eastern boundary. The ancient seaport town called Zafar represents the biblical site or district. Sepharad

(separated), a name which occurs in (Obadiah 1:20) only. Its situation has always been a matter of uncertainty. Sepharvaim

(the two Sipparas) is mentioned by Sennacherib in his letter to Hezekiah as a city whose king had been unable to resist the Assyrians. (2 Kings 19:13; Isaiah 37:13) comp. 2Kin 18:34 It is identified with the famous town of Sippara., on the Euphrates above Babylon, which was near the site of the modern Mosaib. The dual form indicates that there were two Sipparas, one on either side of the river. Berosus celled Sippara "a city of the sun;" and in the inscriptions it bears the same title, being called Tsipar sha Shamas, or "Sippara of the Sun"—the sun being the chief object of worship there. Comp. (2 Kings 17:31) Sephela

the Greek form of the ancient word has-Shefelah, the native name for the southern division of the low-lying flat district which intervenes between the central highlands of the holy land and the Mediterranean, the other and northern portion of which was known as Sharon. The name occurs throughout the topographical records of Joshua. The historical works, and the topographical passages in the prophets always with the article prefixed, and always denoting the same region. In each of these passages, however, the word is treated in the Authorized Version not as a proper name, analogous to the Campagna, the Wolds, the Carse, but as a mere appellative, and rendered "the vale," "the valley," "the plain," "the low plains," and "the low country." The Shefelah was and is

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one of the most productive regions of the holy land. It was in ancient times the cornfield of Syria, and as such the constant subject of warfare between Philistines and Israelites, and the refuge of the latter when the harvests in the central country were ruined by drought. (2 Kings 8:1-3) Septuagint

(The seventy). The Septuagint or Greek version of the Old Testament appears at the present day in four principal editions:— •Biblia Polyglotta Complutensis, A.D. 1514-1617, •The Aldine Edition, Venice, A.D. 1518. •The Roman Edition, edited under Pope Sixtus V., A.D. 1587. •Fac-simile Edition of the Codex Alexandrinus, by H. H. Baber, A.D. 1816. [TARGUMS] The Jews of Alexandria had probably still less knowledge of Hebrew than their brethren in Palestine their familiar language was Alexandrian Greek. They had settled in Alexandria in large numbers soon after the time of Alexander, and under the early Ptolemies. They would naturally follow the same practice as the Jews in Palestine; and hence would arise in time an entire Greek version. But the numbers and names of the translators, and the times at which different portions were translated are all uncertain. The commonly-received story respecting its origin is contained in an extant letter ascribed to Aristeas, who was an officer at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus. This letter which is dressed by Aristeas to his brother Philocrates, gives a glowing account of the origin of the Septuagint; of the embassy and presents sent by King Ptolemy to the high priest at Jerusalem, by the advice of Demetrius Phalereus, his librarian, 30 talents of gold and 70 talents of silver, etc.; the Jewish slaves whom he set free, paying their ransom himself the letter of the king: the answer of the high priest; the choosing of six interpreters from each of the twelve tribes and their names; the copy of the law, in letters of gold; the feast prepared for the seventy two, which continued for seven days; the questions proposed to each of the interpreters in turn, with the answers of each; their lodging by the seashore and the accomplishment of their work in seventy. two days, by conference and comparison. This is the story which probably gave to the version the title of the Septuagint, and which has been repeated in various forms by the Christian writers. But it is now generally admitted that the letter is spurious and is probably the fabrication of an Alexandrian Jew shortly before the Christian era. Still there can be no doubt that there was a basis of fact for the fiction; on three points of the story there is no material difference of opinion and they are confirmed by the study of the version itself:— •The version was made at Alexandria. •It was begun in the time of the earlier Ptolemies, about 280 B.C. •The law (i.e. the Pentateuch) alone was translated at first. The Septuagint version was highly esteemed by the Hellenistic Jews before the coming of Christ. Wherever, by the conquests of Alexander or by colonization, the Greek language prevailed wherever Jews were settled and the attention of the neighboring Gentiles was drawn to their wondrous history and law there was found the Septuagint, which thus became, by divine Providence the means of spreading widely the knowledge of the one true God and his promises of it Saviour to come, throughout the nations. To the wide dispersion of this version we may ascribe in great measure that general persuasion which prevailed over the whole East of the near approach of the Redeemer, and led the Magi to recognize the star which, reclaimed the birth of the King of the Jews. Not less wide was the influence of the Septuagint in the spread of the gospel. For a long period the Septuagint was the Old Testament of the far larger part of the Christian Church. Character of the Septuagint. The

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Septuagint is faithful in substance but not minutely accurate in details. It has been clearly shown by Hody, Frankel and others that the several books were translated by different persons, without any comprehensive revision to harmonize the several parts. Names and words are rendered differently in different books. Thus the character of the version varies much in the several books, those of the Pentateuch are the best. The poetical parts are, generally speaking, inferior to the historical, the original abounding with rarer words and expressions. In the major prophets (probably translated nearly 100 years after the Pentateuch) some of the most important prophecies are sadly obscured. Ezekiel and the minor prophets (generally speaking) seem to be better rendered. Supposing the numerous glosses and duplicate renderings, which have evidently crept from the margin into the text, to be removed and forming a rough estimate of what the Septuagint was in its earliest state, we may perhaps say of it that it is the image of the original seen through a glass not adjusted to the proper focus; the larger features are shown, but the sharpness of definition is lost. The close connection between the Old and the New Testament makes the study of the Septuagint most valuable, and indeed indispensable, to the theological student. It was manifestly the chief storehouse from which the apostles drew their proofs and precepts. Sepulchre

[Burial, Sepulchres] Serah

the daughter of Asher, (Genesis 46:17; 1 Chronicles 7:30) called in (Numbers 26:46) Sarah. (B.C. about 1700.) Seraiah

The king's scribe or secretary in the reign of David. (2 Samuel 8:17) (B.C. 1043.) • •The high priest in the reign of Zedekiah. (2 Kings 25:18; 1 Chronicles 6:14; Jeremiah 52:24) (B.C. 594.) •The son of Tanhumeth the Netophathite. (2 Kings 25:23; Jeremiah 40:8) •The son of Kenaz and brother of Othniel. (1 Chronicles 4:13,14) •Ancestor of Jehu a Simeonite chieftain. (1 Chronicles 4:35) •One of the children of the province who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:2) (B.C. 536.) •One of the ancestors of Ezra the scribe. (Ezra 7:1) •A priest, or priestly family, who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:2) •A priest, the son of Hilkiah. (Nehemiah 11:11) •The head of a priestly house which went up from Babylon with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 12:12) •The son of Neriah and brother of Baruch. (Jeremiah 51:59,61) He went with Zedekiah to Babylon in the fourth year of his reign. (B.C. 594.) Perhaps he was an officer who took charge of the royal caravan on its march, and fixed the places where it should halt. Seraphim

(burning, glowing), an order of celestial beings, whom Isaiah beheld in vision standing above Jehovah as he sat upon his throne. (Isaiah 6:2) They are described as having each of them three pairs of wings, with one of which they covered their faces (a token of humility); with the second they covered their feet (a token of respect); while with the third they flew. They seem to have borne a general resemblance to the human figure. ver. 6. Their occupation was two fold to celebrate the praises of Jehovah's holiness and power, ver. 3 and to act as the medium of communication between heaven and earth. ver. 6. Sered

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(fear), the first-born of Zebulun. (Genesis 46:14; Numbers 26:26) about 1700.) Sergius Paulus

was the proconsul of Cyprus when the apostle Paul visited that island with Barnabas on his first missionary tour. (Acts 13:7) seq. (A.D. 44.) He is described as an intelligent man, truth-seeking, eager for information from all sources within his reach. Though at first admitting to his society Elymas the magician, he afterward, on becoming acquainted with the claims of the gospel, yielded his mind to the evidence of its truth. Serpent

The Hebrew word nachash is the generic name of any serpent. The following are the principal biblical allusions to this animal its subtlety is mentioned in (Genesis 3:1) its wisdom is alluded to by our Lord in (Matthew 10:18) the poisonous properties of some species are often mentioned, see (Psalms 58:4; Proverbs 25:32) the sharp tongue of the serpent is mentioned in (Psalms 140:3; Job 20:16) the habit serpents have of lying concealed in hedges and in holes of walls is alluded to in (Ecclesiastes 10:8) their dwelling in dry sandy places, in (8:10) their wonderful mode of progression did not escape the observation of the author of (Proverbs 30:1) ... who expressly mentions it as "one of the three things which were too wonderful for him." ver. 19. The art of taming and charming serpents is of great antiquity, and is alluded to in (Psalms 58:5; Ecclesiastes 10:11; Jeremiah 8:17) and doubtless intimated by St. James, (James 3:7) who particularizes serpents among all other animals that "have been tamed by man." It was under the form of a serpent that the devil seduced Eve; hence in Scripture Satan is called "the old serpent." (Revelation 12:9) and comp. 2Cor 11:3 Hence, as a fruit of the tradition of the Fall, the serpent all through the East became the emblem of the spirit of evil, and is so pictured even on the monuments of Egypt. It has been supposed by many commentators that the serpent, prior to the Fall, moved along in an erect attitude. It is quite clear that an erect mode of progression is utterly incompatible with the structure of a serpent; consequently, had the snakes before the Fall moved in an erect attitude they must have been formed on a different plan altogether. The typical form of the serpent and its mode of progression were in all probability the same before: the Fall as after it; but subsequent to the Fall its form and progression were to be regarded with hatred and disgust by all mankind, and thus the animal was cursed above all cattle," and a mark of condemnation was forever stamped upon it. Serpents are said in Scripture to "eat dust," see (Genesis 3:14; Isaiah 65:25; Micah 7:17) these animals which for the most part take their food on the ground, do consequently swallow with it large portions of sand and dust. Throughout the East the serpent was used as an emblem of the evil principle, of the spirit of disobedience and contumacy. Much has been written on the question of the "fiery serpents" of (Numbers 21:6,8) with which it is usual to erroneously identify the "fiery flying serpent" of (Isaiah 14:29) and Isai 30:6 The word "fiery" probably signifies "burning," in allusion to the sensation produced by the bite. The Cerastes, or the Naia haje, or any other venomous species frequenting Arabia, may denote the "serpent of the burning bite" which destroyed the children of Israel. The snake that fastened on St. Paul's hand when he was at Melita, (Acts 28:5) was probably the common viper of England, Pelias berus . (See also Adder; Asp] When God punished the murmurs of the Israelites in the wilderness by sending among them serpents whose fiery bite was fatal, Moses, upon their repentance, was commanded to make a serpent of brass, whose polished surface shone like fire, and to set it up on the banner-pole in the midst of the people; and whoever was bitten by a serpent had but to look up at it and live. (Numbers 21:4-9) The comparison used by Christ, (John 3:14,15) adds a deep interest to this scene. To present the serpent form, as deprived of its power to hurt, impaled as the

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

trophy of a conqueror was to assert that evil, physical and spiritual, had been overcome, and thus help to strengthen the weak faith of the Israelites in a victory over both. Others look upon the uplifted serpent as a symbol of life and health, it having been so worshipped in Egypt. The two views have a point of contact, for the serpent is wisdom . Wisdom, apart from obedience to God, degenerates to cunning, and degrades and envenoms man's nature. Wisdom, yielding to the divine law, is the source of healing and restoring influences, and the serpent form thus became a symbol of deliverance and health; and the Israelites were taught that it would be so with them in proportion as they ceased to be sensual and rebellious. Preserved as a relic, whether on the spot of its first erection or elsewhere the brazen serpent, called by the name of Nehushtan, became an object of idolatrous veneration, and the zeal of Hezekiah destroyed it with the other idols of his father. (2 Kings 18:4) [Nehushtan] Serug

(branch), son of Reu and great grandfather of Abraham. His age is given in the Hebrew Bible as 230 years. (Genesis 11:20-23) (B.C. 2180.) Servant

[Slave] Seth

(compensation), (Genesis 4:25; 6:3; 1 Chronicles 1:1) the third son of Adam, and father of Enos. (B.C. 3870.) Adam handed down to Seth and his descendants the promise of mercy, faith in which became the distinction of God's children. (Genesis 4:26) Sethur

(hidden), the Asherite spy, son of Michael. (Numbers 13:13) (B.C. 1490.) Seven

The frequent recurrence of certain numbers in the sacred literature of the Hebrews is obvious to the most superficial reader, but seven so far surpasses the rest, both in the frequency with which it recurs and in the importance of the objects with which it is associated, that it may fairly be termed the representative symbolic number. The influence of the number seven was not restricted to the Hebrews; it prevailed among the Persians, ancient Indians, Greeks and Romans. The peculiarity of the Hebrew view consists in the special dignity of the seventh, and not simply in that of seen. The Sabbath being the seventh day suggested the adoption of seven as the coefficient, so to say, for their appointment of all sacred periods; and we thus find the 7th month ushered in by the Feast of Trumpets, and signalized by the celebration of the Feast of Tabernacles and the Great Day of Atonement; 7 weeks as the interval between the Passover and the Pentecost; the 7th year as the sabbatical year; and the year: succeeding 7X7 years as the Jubilee year. Seven days were appointed as the length of the feasts of Passover and Tabernacles; 7 days for the ceremonies of the consecration of priests, and so on; 7 victims to be offered on any special occasion, as in Balaam's sacrifice. (Numbers 23:1) and especially at the ratification of a treaty, the notion of seven being embodied in the very term signifying to swear, literally meaning to do seven times. (Genesis 31:28) Seven is used for any round number, or for completeness, as we say a dozen, or as a speaker says he will say two or three words. Shaalbim, Or Shaalabbin

(home of foxes), a town in the allotment of Dan. (Joshua 19:42; Judges 1:35; 1 Kings 4:9) By Eusebius and Jerome it is mentioned in the Onomasticon as a large village in the district of Sebaste (i.e. Samaria), and as then called Selaba.

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Shaalbonite, The

Eliahba the Shaalbonite was one of David's thirty seven heroes. (2 Samuel 23:32; 1 Chronicles 11:33) He was a native of a place named Shaalbon, but where it was is unknown. (B.C. 1048.) Shaaph

(division). •The son of Jahdai. (1 Chronicles 2:47) •The son of Caleb the brother of Jerahmeel, by his concubine Maachah. (1 Chronicles 2:49) (B.C. after 1445.) Shaaraim

(two gates), a city in the territory allotted to Judah, (Joshua 15:36) in Authorized Version incorrectly Sharaim. (1 Samuel 17:52) Shaaraim one of the towns of Simeon, (1 Chronicles 4:31) must be a different place. Shaasgaz

(servant of the beautiful), the eunuch in the palace of Xerxes who had the custody of the women in the second house. (Esther 2:14) Shabbethai

(sabbatical) a Levite in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 10:15) It is apparently the same who with Jeshua and others instructed the people in the knowledge of the law. (Nehemiah 8:7) (B.C. 450.) Shachia

(announcemant) a son of Shaharaim by his wife Hodesh. (1 Chronicles 8:10) Shaddai

(the Mighty), an ancient name of God, rendered "Almighty" everywhere in the Authorized Version, is found in connection with el, "God," El Shaddai being then rendered "God Almighty." By the name or in the character of El-Shaddai God was known to the patriarchs, (Genesis 17:1; 28:3; 43:14; 48:3; 40:25) before the name Jehovah, in its full significance, was revealed. (Exodus 6:3) [God] Shadrach

(royal, or the great scribe) the Hebrew, or rather Chaldee, name of Hananiah. The history of Shadrach or Hananiah, as told in Dani 1-3 is well known. After their deliverance from the furnace, we hear no more of Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego, except in (Hebrews 11:33,34) but there are repeated allusions to them in the later apocryphal books, and the martyrs of the Maccabaean period seem to have been much encouraged by their example. Shage

(erring), father of Jonathan the Hararite, one of David's guard. (1 Chronicles 11:34) [See Shammah, 5] (B.C. about 1050.) Shaharaim

(double dawn) a Benjamite. (1 Chronicles 8:8) (B.C. about 1546.) Shahazimah

(toward the heights), one of the towns of the allotment of Issachar. (Joshua 10:22) only. Shalem

(safe). (Genesis 33:18) Probably not a proper name, but a place. It is certainly remarkable that there should be a modern village hearing the name of Salim three miles east of Nablus, the ancient Shechem. Shalim, The Land Of

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(the land of foxes), a district through which Saul passed on his journey in quest of his father's asses. (1 Samuel 9:4) only. It probably was east of Shalisha. Shalisha, The Land Of

one of the districts traversed by Saul when in search of the asses of Kish. (1 Samuel 9:4) only. It was a district near Mount Ephraim. In it perhaps was situated the place called Baal-shalisha, (2 Kings 4:42) 15 Miles north of Lydda. Shallecheth

(overthrow), The gate, one of the gates of the "house of Jehovah." (1 Chronicles 26:16) It was the gate "to the causeway of the ascent." As the causeway is actually in existence, the gate Shallecheth can hardly fail to be identical with the Bab Silsileh or Sinsleh which enters the west wall of the Haram about 600 feet from the southwest corner of the Haram wall. Shallum

(retribution). •The fifteenth king of Israel, son of Jabesh, conspired against Zachariah, killed him, and brought the dynasty of Jehu to a close, B.C. 770. Shallum, after reigning in Samaria for a month only, was in his turn dethroned and killed by Menahem. (2 Kings 15:10-14) •The husband of Huldah the prophetess, (2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chronicles 34:23) in the reign of Josiah. (B.C. 830.) •A descendant of Shesham. (1 Chronicles 2:40,41) •The third son of Josiah king of Judah, known in the books of Kings and Chronicles as Jehoahaz. (1 Chronicles 3:15; Jeremiah 22:11) [Jehoahaz] (B.C. 610.) •Son of Shaul the son of Simeon. (1 Chronicles 4:25) •A high priest. (1 Chronicles 6:12,13; Ezra 7:2) •A son of Naphtali. (1 Chronicles 7:13) •The chief of a family of porters or gate-keepers of the east gate of the temple. (1 Chronicles 9:17) (B.C. 1050.) •Son of Kore, a Korahite. (1 Chronicles 9:19,31) •Father of Jehizkiah, an Ephraimite. (2 Chronicles 28:12) •One of the porters of the temple who had married a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:24) •One of the sons of Bani. (Ezra 10:42) •The son of Halohesh and ruler of a district of Jerusalem. (Nehemiah 3:12) •The uncle of Jeremiah, (Jeremiah 32:7) perhaps the same as 2. •Father or ancestor of Maaseiah (Jeremiah 35:4) perhaps the same as 9. (B.C. 630.) Shallun

(retribution), the son of Cohozeh, and ruler of a district of the Mizpah. (Nehemiah 3:15) Shalmai

(my thanks). The children of Shalmai were among the Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:46; Nehemiah 7:48) In Nehemiah SALMAI. (B.C. 536.) Shalman

(fire-worshipper), a contraction for Shalmaneser king of Assyria. (Hosea 10:14) Others think it the name of an obscure Assyrian king, predecessor of Pul. Shalmaneser

(fire-worshipper) was the Assyrian king who reigned probably between Tiglath-Pileser and Sargon, B.C. 727-722. He led the forces of Assyria into Palestine, where Hoshea, the last king of

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Israel, had revolted against his authority. (2 Kings 17:3) Hoshea submitted and consented to pay tribute; but he soon after concluded all alliance with the king of Egypt, and withheld his tribute in consequence. In B.C. 723 Shalmaneser invaded Palestine for the second time, and, as Hoshea refused to submit, laid siege to Samaria. The siege lasted to the third year, B.C. 721, when the Assyrian arms prevailed. (2 Kings 17:4-6; 18:9-11) It is uncertain whether Shalmaneser conducted the siege to its close, or whether he did not lose his crown to Sargon before the city was taken. Shama

(obedient), one of David's guard. (1 Chronicles 11:44) (B.C. 1020.) Shamariah

(kept by Jehovah), son of Rehoboam. (2 Chronicles 11:19) Shamed

(keeper), properly Shamer or Shemer; one of the pens of Elpaal the Benjamite. (1 Chronicles 8:12) Shamer

(keeper). •Merarite Levite. (1 Chronicles 6:46) •Shomer, an Asherite. (1 Chronicles 7:34) Shamgar

(sword), son of Anath, judge of Israel. When Israel was in a most depressed condition, Shamgar was raised up to be a deliverer. With no arms in his hand but an ox-goad, (Judges 3:31) comp. 1Sam 13:21 He made a desperate assault upon the Philistines, and slew 600 of them. (B.C. about 1290.) Shamhuth

(desolation), the fifth captain for the fifth month in David's arrangement of his army. (1 Chronicles 27:8) (B.C. 1020.) Shamir

(n point or thorn.) •A town in the mountain district of Judah. (Joshua 15:48) only. It probably lay some eight or ten miles south of Hebron. •A place in Mount Ephraim, the residence and burial-place of Tola the judge. (Judges 10:1,2) Perhaps Samur, half-way between Samaria and Jenin . •A Kohathite, son of Micah or Michal, the first-born of Uzziel. (1 Chronicles 24:24) Shamma

(astonishment), one of the sons of Zophar, an Asherite. (1 Chronicles 7:37) Shammah

(astonishment). •The son of Reuel the son of Esau. (Genesis 36:13,17; 1 Chronicles 1:37) (B.C. about 1700.) •The third son of Jesse, and brother of David. (1 Samuel 16:9; 17:13) Called also Shimea., Shimeah and Shimma. •One of the three greatest of David's mighty men. (2 Samuel 23:11-17) (B.C. 1061.) •The Harodite, one of David's mighties. (2 Samuel 23:25) He is called "Shammoth the Harorite" in (1 Chronicles 11:27) and "Shamhuth the Izrahite" ibid. (1 Chronicles 27:8) •In the list of David's mighty men in (2 Samuel 23:32,33) we find "Jonathan, Shammah the Hararite;" while in the corresponding verse of (1 Chronicles 11:34) it is Jonathan.

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Shammai

(desolate). •The son of Onam. (1 Chronicles 2:28,32) •Son of Rekem. (1 Chronicles 2:44,45) •One of the descendants of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:17) Shammoth

[Shammah] Shammua

(renowned). •Reubenite spy, son of Zaccur. (Numbers 13:4) (B.C. 1490.) •Son of David, by his wife Bathsheba. (1 Chronicles 14:4) (B.C. 1045.) •A Levite, the father of Abda. (Nehemiah 11:17) The same as Shemaiah, 6. •The representative of the priestly family of Bilgah or Bilgai, in the days of Joiakim. (Nehemiah 12:18) (B.C. about 500.) Shammuah

son of David, (2 Samuel 5:14) elsewhere called Shammua and Shimea. Shamsherai

(sunlike), a Benjamite. (1 Chronicles 8:26) Shapham

(bold), a Gadite of Bashan. (1 Chronicles 5:12) (B.C. 750.) Shaphan

(coney), the scribe or secretary of King Josiah. (2 Kings 22:3,14; 2 Chronicles 34:8,20) (B.C. 628.) He appears on an equality with the governor of the city and the royal recorder. (2 Kings 22:4; 2 Chronicles 34:9) Shaphat

(judge). 1.The Simeonite spy, son of Hori. (Numbers 13:5) (B.C. 1490). •The father of the prophet Elisha. (1 Kings 19:18,19; 2 Kings 3:11; 6:31) (B.C. before 900.) •One of the six sons of Shemaiah in the royal line of Judah. (1 Chronicles 3:22) (B.C. 350.) •One of the chiefs of the Gadites in Bashan. (1 Chronicles 5:12) (B.C. 750.) •The son of Adlai, who was over David's oxen in the valleys. (1 Chronicles 27:29) (B.C. 1020.) Shapher

(brightness), Mount, (Numbers 33:23) the name of a desert station where the Israelites encamped during the wanderings in the wilderness. Sharai

(releaser), one of the sons of Bani. (Ezra 10:40) (B.C. 457.) Sharaim

[Shaaraim] Sharar

(strong), the father of Ahiam the Hararite. (2 Samuel 23:33) In (1 Chronicles 11:35) he is called Sacar. (B.C. 1040.) Sharezer

(prince of fire) was a son of Sennacherib, whom, In conjunction with his brother Adrammelech, he murdered. (2 Kings 19:37) (B.C. after 711.) Sharon

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

(a plain), a district of the holy land occasionally referred to in the Bible. (1 Chronicles 5:16; Isaiah 33:9) In (Acts 9:35) called Saron. The name has on each occurrence with one exception only, (1 Chronicles 5:16) the definite article; it would therefore appear that "the Sharon" was some well-defined region familiar to the Israelites. It is that broad, rich tract of land which lies between the mountains of the central part of the holy land and the Mediterranean—the northern continuation of the Shefelah. [Palestina And Palestine] The Sharon of (2 Chronicles 5:16) to which allusion has already been made, is distinguished front the western plain by not having the article attached to its name, as the other invariably has. It is also apparent from the passage itself that it was some district on the east of the Jordan, in the neighborhood of Gilead and Bashan. The name has not been met with in that direction. Sharonite

(belonging to Sharon), The Shitrai, who had charge of the royal herds in the plain of Sharon, (1 Chronicles 27:29) is the only Sharonite mentioned in the Bible. Sharuhen

(refuge of grace), a town named in (Joshua 19:6) only among those which were in Jadah to Simeon. It is identified with Sheriah a large ruin in the south country, northwest of Beersheba. Shashai

(noble), one of the sons of Bani in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 10:40) (B.C. 457.) Shashak

(longing), a Benjamite, one of the sons of Beriah. (1 Chronicles 8:14,25) (B.C. after 1450.) Shaul

(asked). •The son of Simeon by a Canaanitish woman, (Genesis 48:10; Exodus 6:15; Numbers 26:13; 1 Chronicles 4:24) and founder of the family of the Shaulites. (B.C. 1712.) •One of the kings of Edom. (1 Chronicles 1:48,49) In the Authorized Version of (Genesis 36:37) he is less accurately called Saul. Shaveh

(plain), The valley of, described (Genesis 14:17) as "the valley of the king," is mentioned again in (2 Samuel 18:18) as the site of a pillar set up by Absalom. Shaveh Kiriathaim

(plain of the double city), mentioned (Genesis 14:5) as the residence of the Emim at the time of Chedorlaomer's incursion. Kiriathaim is named in the later history, though it has not been identified; and Shaveh Kiriathaim was probably the valley in or by which the town lay. Shavsha

(nobility), the royal secretary in the reign of David, (1 Chronicles 18:16) called also Seraiah in (2 Samuel 8:17) And Sheva in (2 Samuel 20:25) End in (1 Kings 4:3) Shisha. Shawm

In the Prayer-book version of (Psalms 98:6) "with trumpets also stands also and shawms " is the rendering of what stands in the Authorized Version "with trumpets and sound of cornet ." The Hebrew word translated cornet is treated under the head. The "shawm" was a musical instrument resembling the clarinet. Sheal

(asking), one of the sons of Bani who had married a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:29) (B.C. 452.) Shealtiel

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

(asked of God), father of Zerubbabel. (Ezra 3:2,8; 5:2; Nehemiah 12:1; Haggai 1:1,12,14; 2:2,23) (B.C. about 580.) Sheariah

(valued by Jehovah), one of the six sons of Azel a descendant of Saul. (1 Chronicles 8:38; 9:41) Shearinghouse, The

a place on the road between Jezreel and Samaria, at which Jehu, on his way to the latter, encountered forty-two members of the royal family of Judah, whom he slaughtered. (2 Kings 10:12,14) Eusebius mentions it as a village of Samaria "in the great plain [of Esdraelon], 15, miles from Legion." Shearjashub

(lit. a remnant shall return), the symbolical name of the son of Isaiah the prophet. (Isaiah 7:3) Sheba

one of the towns of the allotment of Simeon, (Joshua 19:2) probably the same as Shema. (Joshua 15:26) (seven, or all oath). •A son of Raamah son of Cush. (Genesis 10:7; 1 Chronicles 1:9) •A soil of Joktan. (Genesis 10:28; 1 Chronicles 1:22) •A son of Jokshan son of Keturah. (Genesis 25:3; 1 Chronicles 1:32) We shall consider, first, the history of the Joktanite Sheba; and secondly, the Cushite Sheba and the Keturahite Sheba together. I. The Joktanites were among the early colonists of southern Arabia, and the kingdom which they there founded was for many centuries called the kingdom of Sheba, after one of the sons of Joktan. The visit of the queen of Sheba to King Solomon. (1 Kings 10:1) is one of the familiar Bible incidents. The kingdom of Sheba embraced the greater part of the Yemen, or Arabia Felix. It bordered on the Red Sea, and was one of the most fertile districts of Arabia. Its chief cities, and probably successive capitals, were Seba, San'a (Uzal), and Zafar (Sephar). Seba was probably the name of the city, and generally of the country and nation. II. Sheba, son of Raamah son of Cush settled somewhere on the shores of the Persian Gulf. It was this Sheba that carried on the great Indian traffic with Palestine, in conjunction with, as we hold, the other Sheba, son of Jokshan son of Keturah, who like Dedan appears to have formed, with the Cushite of the same name, one tribe.

(on oath), the son of Bichri, a Benjamite, (2 Samuel 20:1-22) the last chief of the Absalom insurrection. The occasion seized by Sheba was the emulation between the northern and southern tribes on David's return. (2 Samuel 20:1,2) Sheba traversed the whole of Palestine apparently rousing the population, Joab following in full pursuit to the fortress Abel Beth-maachah, where Sheba was beheaded. (2 Samuel 20:3-22) Shebah

(an oath), the famous well which gave its name to the city of Beersheba. (Genesis 26:53) [Beersheba, Or Beersheba] Shebam

(fragrance), one of the towns in the pastoral district on the east of Jordan; demanded by and finally ceded to the tribes of Reuben and Gad. (Numbers 32:3) It is probably the same as Shibmah, (Numbers 32:38) and Sibmah. (Joshua 13:13; Isaiah 16:8,9; Jeremiah 48:32) Shebaniah

(increased by Jehovah).

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

•A Levite in the time of Ezra. (Nehemiah 9:4,5) He sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:10) (B.C. 459.) •A priest or priestly family who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:4; 12:14) Called Shechaniah, Shechaniah in (Nehemiah 12:3) •Another Levite who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:12) •One of the priests appointed by David to blow with the trumpets before the ark of God. (1 Chronicles 15:24) (B.C. 1043.) Shebarim

(the breaches), a place named in (Joshua 7:5) only, as one of the points in the flight from Ai. Sheber

(breaking), son of Caleb ben-Hezron by his concubine Maachah. (1 Chronicles 2:48) (B.C. after 1690.) Shebna

(vigor), a person of high position in Hezekiah's court, holding at one time the office of prefect of the palace, (Isaiah 22:15) but subsequently the subordinate office of secretary. (Isaiah 36:3; 2 Kings 19:2) (B.C. 713.) Shebuel, Or Shebuel

(captive of God). •A descendant of Moses, (1 Chronicles 23:16; 26:24) called also Shubael. (1 Chronicles 24:20) (B.C. 1013). •One of the fourteen sons of Heman the minstrel, (1 Chronicles 25:4) called also Shubael. (1 Chronicles 25:20) (B.C. 1013.) Shechaniah

(dweller with Jehovah). •A descendant of Zerubbabel. (1 Chronicles 3:21,22) •Some descendants of Shechaniah returned with Ezra. (Ezra 8:3) •The sons of Shechaniah were another family who returned with Ezra. (Ezra 8:5) (B.C. 459.) •The son of Jehiel, of the sons of Elam. (Ezra 10:2) •The father of Shemaiah, 2. (Nehemiah 3:29) •The son of Arah. (Nehemiah 6:18) •The head of a priestly family who returned with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 12:3) (dweller with Jehovah). •The tenth in order of the priests who were appointed by lot in the reign of David. (1 Chronicles 24:11) (B.C. 1014.) •A priest in the reign of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 31:15) (B.C. 925.) Shechem

(back or shoulder). •An important city in central Palestine, in the valley between mounts Ebal and Gerizim, 34 miles north of Jerusalem and 7 miles southeast of Samaria. Its present name, Nablus, is a corruption of Neapolis, which succeeded the more ancient Shechem, and received its new name from Vespasian. On coins still extant it is called Flavia Neapolis. The situation of the town is one of surpassing beauty. It lies in a sheltered valley, protected by Gerizim on the south and Ebal on the north. The feet of these mountains, where they rise from the town, are not more than five hundred yards apart. The bottom of the valley is about 1800 feet above the level of the sea, and the top of Gerizim 800

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

feet higher still. The sit of the present city, which was also that of the Hebrew city, occurs exactly on the water-summit; and streams issuing from the numerous springs there flow down the opposite slopes of the valley, spreading verdure and fertility in every direction. Travellers vie with each other in the language which they employ to describe the scene that here bursts so suddenly upon them on arriving in spring or early summer at this paradise of the holy land. "The whole valley," says Dr. Robinson, "was filled with gardens of vegetables and orchards of all kinds of fruits, watered by fountains which burst forth in various parts and flow westward in refreshing streams. it came upon us suddenly like a scene of fairy enchantment. We saw nothing to compare with it in all Palestine." The allusions to Shechem in the Bible are numerous, and show how important the place was in Jewish history. Abraham, on his first migration to the land of promise, pitched his tent and built an altar under the oak (or terebinth) of Moreh at Shechem. "The Canaanite was then in the land;" and it is evident that the region, if not the city, was already in possession of the aboriginal race. See (Genesis 12:6) At the time of Jacob's arrival here, after his sojourn in Mesopotamia, (Genesis 33:18; 34) Shechem was a Hivite city, of which Hamor, the father of Shechem, was the headman. it was at this time that the patriarch purchased from that chieftain "the parcel of the field" which he subsequently bequeathed, as a special patrimony, to his son Joseph. (Genesis 33:19; Joshua 24:32; John 4:5) The field lay undoubtedly on the rich plain of the Mukhna, and its value was the greater on account of the well which Jacob had dug there, so as not to be dependent on his neighbors for a supply of water. In the distribution of the land after its conquest by the Hebrews, Shechem fell to the lot of Ephraim, (Joshua 20:7) but was assigned to the Levites, and became a city of refuge. (Joshua 21:20,21) It acquired new importance as the scene of the renewed promulgation of the law, when its blessings were heard from Gerizim and its curses from Ebal, and the people bowed their heads and acknowledged Jehovah as their king and ruler. (27:11; Joshua 24:23-25) it was here Joshua assembled the people, shortly before his death, and delivered to them his last counsels. (Joshua 24:1,25) After the death of Gideon, Abimelech, his bastard son, induced the Shechemites to revolt from the Hebrew commonwealth and elect him as king. (Judges 9:1) ... In revenge for his expulsion after a reign of three years, Abimelech destroyed the city, and as an emblem of the fate to which he would consign it, sowed the ground with salt. (Judges 9:34-45) It was soon restored, however, for we are told in (1 Kings 12:1) ... that all Israel assembled at Shechem, and Rehoboam, Solomon's successor, went thither to be inaugurated as king. here, at this same place, the ten tribes renounced the house of David, and transferred their allegiance to Jeroboam, (1 Kings 12:16) under whom Shechem became for a time the capital of his kingdom. From the time of the origin of the Samaritans, the history of Shechem blends itself with that of this people and of their sacred mount, Gerizim. [Samaria] Shechem reappears in the New Testament. It is the Sychar of (John 4:5) near which the Saviour conversed with the Samaritan woman at Jacob's well. The population of Nablus consists of about 5000, among whom are 500 Greek Christians, 150 Samaritans, and a few Jews. The enmity between the Samaritans and jews is as inveterate still as it was in the days of Christ. The Mohammedans, of course, make up the bulk of the population. The well of Jacob and the tomb of Joseph are still shown in the neighborhood of the town. The well of Jacob lies about a mile and a half east of the city, close to the lower road, and just beyond the wretched hamlet of Balata . The Christians sometimes call it Bir es-Samariyeh— "the well of the Samaritan woman." The well is deep—75 feet when last measured—and there was probably a considerable accumulation of rubbish at the bottom. Sometimes it contains a few feet of water, but at others it is quite dry. It is entirely excavated

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

in the solid rock, perfectly round, 9 feet in diameter, with the sides hewn smooth and regular. Of all the special localities of our Lord's life, this is almost the only one absolutely undisputed. The tomb of Joseph lies about a quarter of a mile north of the well, exactly in the centre of the opening of the valley. It is a small between Gerizim and Ebal. It is a small, square enclosure of high whitewashed walls, surrounding a tomb of the ordinary kind, but with the peculiarity that it is placed diagonally to the walls, instead of parallel as usual. A rough pillar used as an altar and black with the traces of fire is at the head and another at the foot of the tome. In the walls are two slabs with Hebrew inscriptions, and the interior is almost covered with the names of pilgrims in Hebrew Arabic and Samaritan. Beyond this there is nothing to remark in the structure itself. The local tradition of the tomb, like that of the well is as old as the beginning of the fourth century. •The son of Hamor, the chieftain of the Hivite settlement of Shechem at the time of Jacob's arrival. (Genesis 33:19; 34:2-26; Joshua 24:32; Judges 9:28) •A man of Manasseh, of the clan of Gilead. (Numbers 26:31) •A Gileadite, son of Shemida, the younger brother of the foregoing. (1 Chronicles 7:19) Shechemites, The

the family of Shechem son of Gilead. (Numbers 26:31) comp. Josh 17:2 Shechinah

(dwelling). This term is not found in the Bible. It was used by the later Jews, and borrowed by Christians from them, to express the visible majesty of the divine Presence especially when resting or dwelling between the cherubim on the mercyseat. In the tabernacle and in the temple of Solomon, but not in the second temple. The use of the term is first found in the Targums, where it forms a frequent periphrasis for God, considered its dwelling among the children of Israel. The idea which the different accounts in Scripture convey is that of a most brilliant and glorious light, enveloped in a cloud, and usually concealed by the cloud, so that the cloud itself was for the most part alone visible but on particular occasions the glory appeared. The allusions in the New Testament to the shechinah are not unfrequent. (Luke 2:9; John 1:14; Romans 9:4) and we are distinctly taught to connect it with the incarnation and future coming of the Messiah as type with antitype. Shedeur

(darter of light), the father of Elizur, chief of the tribe of Reuben at the time of the exodus. (Numbers 1:5; 2:10; 7:30,35; 10:18) (B.C. 1491.) Sheep

Sheep were an important part of the possessions of the ancient Hebrews and of eastern nations generally. The first mention of sheep occurs in (Genesis 4:2) They were used in the sacrificial offering,as, both the adult animal, (Exodus 20:24) and the lamb. See (Exodus 29:28; Leviticus 9:3; 12:6) Sheep and lambs formed an important article of food. (1 Samuel 25:18) The wool was used as clothing. (Leviticus 13:47) "Rams skins dyed red" were used as a covering for the tabernacle. (Exodus 25:5) Sheep and lambs were sometimes paid as tribute. (2 Kings 3:4) It is very striking to notice the immense numbers of sheep that were reared in Palestine in biblical times. (Chardin says he saw a clan of Turcoman shepherds whose flock consisted of 3,000,000 sheep and goats, besides 400,000 Feasts of carriage, as horses, asses and camels.) Sheep-sheering is alluded to (Genesis 31:19) Sheepdogs were employed in biblical times. (Job 30:1) Shepherds in Palestine and the East generally go before their flocks, which they induce to follow by calling to them, comp. (John 10:4; Psalms 77:20; 80:1) though they also drive them. (Genesis 33:13) The following quotation from Hartley's "Researches in Greece and the Levant," p. 321, is strikingly illustrative of the allusions

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

in (John 10:1-16) "Having had my attention directed last night to the words in (John 10:3) I asked my man if it was usual in Greece to give names to the sheep. He informed me that it was, and that the sheep obeyed the shepherd when he called them by their names. This morning I had an opportunity of verifying the truth of this remark. Passing by a flock of sheep I asked the shepherd the same question which I had put to the servant, and he gave me the same answer. I then had him call one of his sheep. He did so, and it instantly left its pasturage and its companions and ran up to the hands of the shepherd with signs of pleasure and with a prompt obedience which I had never before observed in any other animal. It is also true in this country that a stranger will they not follow, but will flee from him. The shepherd told me that many of his sheep were still wild, that they had not yet learned their names, but that by teaching them they would all learn them." The common sheer, of Syria and Palestine are the broad-tailed. As the sheep is an emblem of meekness, patience and submission, it is expressly mentioned as typifying these qualities in the person of our blessed Lord. (Isaiah 53:7; Acts 8:32) etc. The relation that exists between Christ, "the chief Shepherd," and his members is beautifully compared to that which in the East is so strikingly exhibited by the shepherds to their flocks [Shepherd] Sheepgate, The

one of the gates of Jerusalem as rebuilt by Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 3:1,32; 12:39) It stood between the tower of Meah and the chamber of the corner, ch. (Nehemiah 3:1,32) or gate of the guard-house, ch. (Nehemiah 12:39) Authorized Version, "prison-gate." The latter seems to have been at the angle formed by the junction of the wall of the city of David with that of the city of Jerusalem proper, having the sheep-gate on the north of it. The position of the sheep-gate may therefore have been on or near that of the Bab el Kattanin. Sheepmarket, The

(John 5:2) The world "market" is an interpolation of our translators. We ought probably to supply the word "gate." Shehariah

(dawning of Jehovah), a Benjamite, son of Jehoram. (1 Chronicles 8:26) (B.C. 588.) Shekel

[Money] Shelah

(a petition). •The youngest son of Judah. (Genesis 38:5,11,14,26; 46:10; Numbers 26:20; 1 Chronicles 2:3; 4:21) (B.C. before 1706.) •The proper form of the name of Salah. (1 Chronicles 1:18,24) Shelanites, The

the descendants of Shelah. 1. (Numbers 26:20) Shelemiah

(repaid by Jehovah). •One of the sons of Bani in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 10:30) (B.C. 458.) •The father of Hananiah. (Nehemiah 3:30) •A priest in the time of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 13:13) •The father of Jehueal, or Jucal, in the time of Zedekiah. (Jeremiah 37:3) •The father of Irijah, the captain of the ward who arrested Jeremiah. (Jeremiah 37:13) (B.C. before 589.)

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

•The same as Meshelemiah and Shallum, 8. (1 Chronicles 26:14) •Another of the sons of Bani in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 10:41) •Ancestor of Jehudi in the time of Jehoiakim. (Jeremiah 36:14) •Son of Abdeel; one of those who received the orders of Jehoiakim to take Baruch and Jeremiah. (Jeremiah 36:26) (B.C. 604.) Sheleph

(a drawing forth), the second in order of the sons of Joktan. (Genesis 10:26; 1 Chronicles 1:20) Shelesh

(might), son of Helem. (1 Chronicles 7:35) Shelomi

(peaceful), an Asherite, father of Ahihud. (Numbers 34:27) (B.C. before 1450.) Shelomith

(peaceful). •The daughter of Dibri, of the tribe of Dan. (Leviticus 24:11) •The daughter of Zerubbabel. (1 Chronicles 3:19) (B.C. after 536.) •Chief of the Izharites. (1 Chronicles 23:18) •A descendant of Eliezer the son of Moses, in the reign of David. (1 Chronicles 26:25,26,28) (B.C. 1013.) •A Gershonite. (1 Chronicles 23:9) •One whose sons returned from Babylon with Ezra. (Ezra 8:10) Shelomoth

the same as Shelomith, 3. (1 Chronicles 24:22) Shelumiel

(friend of God), the son of Zurishaddai, and prince of the tribe of Simeon at the time of the exodus. (Numbers 1:6; 2:12; 7:36,41; 10:19) (B.C. 1431.) Shem

(name), the eldest son of Noah. (Genesis 5:32) He was 98 years old, married, and childless at the time of the flood. After it, he, with his father, brothers, sisters-in-law and wife, received the blessing of God, (Genesis 9:1) and entered into the covenant. With the help of his brother Japheth, he covered the nakedness of their father and received the first blessing. (Genesis 9:25-27) He died at the age of 630 years. The portion of the earth occupied by the descendants of Shem, (Genesis 10:21,31) begins at its northwestern extremity with Lydia, and includes Syria (Aram), Chaldaea (Arphaxad), parts Of Assyria (Asshur), of Persia (Elam), and of the Arabian peninsula (Joktan). Modern scholars have given the name of Shemitic or Semitic to the languages spoken by his real or supposed descendants. [Hebrew Language] Shema

A Reubenite, ancestor of Bela. (1 Chronicles 5:8) (B.C. before 1090.) • •Son of Elpaal. (1 Chronicles 8:13) Probably the same as Shimhi. (B.C. after 1450.) •One of those who stood at Ezra's right hand when he read the law to the people. (Nehemiah 8:4) (B.C. 458.) •(Joshua 15:26) [Sheba] Shemaah

(the rumor), a Benjamite of Gibeah, and father of Ahiezer and Joash. (1 Chronicles 12:3) (B.C. before 1054.)

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Shemaiah

(heard by Jehovah). •A prophet in the reign of Rehoboam. (1 Kings 12:22; 2 Chronicles 11:2) (B.C. 972.) He wrote a chronicle containing the events of Rehoboam's reign. (2 Chronicles 12:5,15) •The son of Shechaniah, among the descendants of Zerubbabel. (1 Chronicles 3:23; Nehemiah 3:28) •A prince of the tribe of Simeon. (1 Chronicles 4:27) •Son of Joel, Reubenite. (1 Chronicles 5:4) (B.C. after 1706.) •Son of Hasshub, a Merarite Levite. (1 Chronicles 9:14; Nehemiah 11:15) •Father of Obadiah or Abda, a Levite. (1 Chronicles 9:16) •Son of Elizaphan, and chief of his house in the reign of David. (1 Chronicles 15:8,11) (B.C. 1043.) •A Levite, son of Nethaneel and also a scribe in the time of David. (1 Chronicles 24:6) (B.C. 1014.) •The eldest son of Obed-edom the Gittite. (1 Chronicles 26:4,6,7) (B.C. 1014.) •A descendant of Jeduthun the singer who lived in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chronicles 29:14) •One of the sons of Adonikam who returned with Ezra. (Ezra 5:13) •One of Ezra's messengers. (Ezra 8:16) •A priest of the family of Harim, who put away his foreign wife at Ezra's bidding. (Ezra 10:21) (B.C. 455.) •A layman of Israel son of another Harim, who had also married a foreigner. (Ezra 10:31) (B.C. 458.) •Son of Delaiah the son of Mehetabeel, a prophet in the time of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 6:10) (B.C. 446.) •The head of a priestly house who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:8; 12:6,18) (B.C. 410.) •One of the princes of Judah at the time of the dedication of Jerusalem. (Nehemiah 12:34) •One of the choir on the same occasion. (Nehemiah 12:38) •A priest. (Nehemiah 12:42) •A false prophet in the time of Jeremiah. (Jeremiah 29:24-32) •A Levite in the reign of Jehoshaphat. (2 Chronicles 17:8) (B.C. 909.) •A Levite in the reign of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 31:15) (B.C. 726.) •A Levite in the reign of Josiah. (2 Chronicles 35:9) (B.C. 628.) •The father of Urijah of Kirjath-jearim. (Jeremiah 26:20) (B.C. before 608.) •The father of Delaiah. (Jeremiah 36:12) (B.C. before 605.) Shemariah

(kept by Jehovah). •A Benjamite warrior who came to David at Ziklag. (1 Chronicles 12:5) (B.C. 1054.) •One of the family of Harim, a lay man of Israel who put away his foreign wife in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 10:32) (B.C. 658.) •Another who did the same. (Ezra 10:41) Shemeber

(lofty flight), king of Zeboim, and ally of the king of Sodom when he was attacked by Chedorlaomer. (B.C. 1912.) Shemer

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

(preserved), the owner of the hill on which the city of Samaria was built. (1 Kings 16:24) (B.C. 917.) [Samaria] Shemida

(wise), a son of Gilead. (Numbers 26:32; Joshua 17:2) (B.C. after 1690.) Shemidah

Shemida the son of Gilead. (1 Chronicles 7:19) Shemidaites, The

the descendants of Shemida the son of Gilead. (Numbers 26:32) Sheminith

(eighth), a musical term found in the title of (Psalms 6:1) A similar direction is found in the title of (Psalms 12:1) Comp. 1Chr 15:21 It seems most probable that Sheminith denotes a certain air known as the eighth, or a certain key in which the psalm was to be sung. Shemitic Languages

the family of languages spoken by the descendants of Shem, chiefly the Hebrew, Chaldaic, Assyrian, Arabic Phoenician and Aramaic or Syriac. The Jews in their earlier history spoke the Hebrew, but in Christ's time they spoke the Aramaic, sometimes called the Syro-Chaldaic. Shemuel

(heard by God). •A commissioner appointed from the tribe of Simeon to divide the land of Canaan. (Numbers 34:20) (B.C. 1450.) •Samuel the prophet. (1 Chronicles 6:33) •Son of Tola, and one of the chiefs of the tribe of Issachar, (1 Chronicles 7:2) (B.C. 1014.) Shen

(tooth), a place mentioned only in (1 Samuel 7:12) Nothing is known of it. Shenazar

(splendid leader), son of Salathiel or Shealtiel. (1 Chronicles 3:18) (B.C. after 606.) Shenir

[Senir] Shepham

(fruitful), a place on the eastern boundary of the promised land. (Numbers 34:10,11) Shephathiah

a Benjamite, father of Meshullam 6. (1 Chronicles 9:8) Shephatiah

(judged by Jehovah). •The fifth son of David. (2 Samuel 3:4; 1 Chronicles 3:3) (B.C. about 1050.) •The family of Shephatiah, 372 in number, returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:4; Nehemiah 7:9) see also Ezra 8:8 (B.C. 536.) •The family of another Shephatiah, who came up with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:4) •A descendant of Judah. (Nehemiah 11:4) •One of the princes of Judah who counselled Zedekiah to put Jeremiah in the dungeon. (Jeremiah 38:1) (B.C. 589.) •One of the Benjamite warriors who joined David in his retreat at Ziklag. (1 Chronicles 12:5) (B.C. 1054.) •Chief of the Simeonites in the reign of David. (1 Chronicles 37:16)

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

•Son of Jehoshaphat. (2 Chronicles 21:2) (B.C. 887.) Shepherd

In a nomadic state of society every man, from the sheikh down to the slave, is more or less a shepherd. The progenitors of the Jews in the patriarchal age were nomads, and their history is rich in scenes of pastoral life. The occupation of tending the flocks was undertaken,not only by the sons of wealthy chiefs, (Genesis 30:29) ff.; Genesis37:12 ff., but even by their daughters. (Genesis 29:6,8; Exodus 2:10) The Egyptian captivity did march to implant a love of settled abode, and consequently we find the tribes which still retained a taste for shepherd life selecting their own quarters apart from their brethren in the transjordanic district. (Numbers 32:1) ff. Thenceforward in Palestine proper the shepherd held a subordinate position. The office of the eastern shepherd, as described in the Bible, was attended with much hardship, and even danger. He was exposed to the extremes of heat and cold, (Genesis 31:40) his food frequently consisted of the precarious supplies afforded by nature, such as the fruit of the "sycamore" or Egyptian fig, (Amos 7:14) the "husks" of the carob tree, (Luke 15:16) and perchance the locusts and wild honey which supported the Baptist, (Matthew 3:4) he had to encounter the attacks of wild beasts, occasionally of the larger species, such as lions, nerves, panthers and bears, (1 Samuel 17:34; Isaiah 31:4; Jeremiah 5:6; Amos 5:12) nor was he free from the risk of robbers or predators hordes. (Genesis 31:39) To meet these various foes the shepherd's equipment consisted of the following articles: a mantle, made probably of sheep skin with the fleece on, which he turned inside out in cold weather, as implied in the comparison in (Jeremiah 43:12) (cf. Juv. xiv. 187.); a scrip or wallet, containing a small amount of food (1 Samuel 17:40) a sling, which is still the favorite weapon of the Bedouin shepherd, (1 Samuel 17:40) and lastly, a which served the double purpose of a weapon against foes and a crook for the management of the flock. (1 Samuel 17:40; Psalms 23:4; Zechariah 11:7) If the shepherd was at a distance from his home, he was provided with a light tent, (Song of Solomon 1:8; Jeremiah 35:7) the removal of which was easily effected. (Isaiah 38:12) In certain localities, moreover, towers were erected for the double purpose of spying an enemy at a distance and of protecting the flock; such towers were erected by Uzziah and Jotham, (2 Chronicles 26:10; 27:4) while their existence in earlier times is testified by the name Migdal-edar (Genesis 35:21) Authorized Version "a tower of Edar;" (Micah 4:8) Authorized Version "tower of the flock." The routine of the shepherd's duties appears to have been as follows: In the morning he led forth his flock from the fold (John 10:4) which he did by going before them and calling to them, as is still usual in the East; arrived at the pasturage he watched the flock with the assistance of dogs, (Job 30:1) and should any sheep stray, he had to search for it until he found it, (Ezekiel 34:12; Luke 15:4) he supplied them with water, either at a running stream or at troughs attached to wells, (Genesis 29:7; 30:38; Exodus 2:16; Psalms 23:2) at evening he brought them back to the fold, and reckoned them to see that none were missing, by passing them "under the rod" as they entered the door of the enclosure (Leviticus 27:32; Ezekiel 20:37) checking each sheep, as it passed, by a motion of the hand, (Jeremiah 33:13) and, finally, he watched the entrance of the fold throughout the night, acting as porter. (John 10:3) [See Sheepfold, under Sheep] The shepherd's office thus required great watchfulness, particularly by night. (Luke 2:8) cf. Nahu 3:18 It also required tenderness toward the young and feeble, (Isaiah 40:11) particularly in driving them to and from the pasturage. (Genesis 33:13) In large establishments there are various grades of shepherds, the highest being styled "rulers," (Genesis 47:6) or "chief shepherds," (1 Peter 5:4) in a royal household the title of abbir "mighty," was bestowed on the person who held the post. (1 Samuel 21:7) [Sheep]

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Shephi

(bareness), son of Shobal. of the sons of Seir. (1 Chronicles 1:40) Called also Shepho. (Genesis 36:23) Shepho

(Genesis 36:23) [Shephi] Shephuphan

(an adder), one of the sons of Bela the first-born of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 8:5) His name is also written SHEPHUPNAM (authorized Version "Shupham"), (Numbers 26:39) Shuppim (1 Chronicles 7:12,15) and Muppim. (Genesis 46:21) [Muppim] Sherah

(kinswoman), daughter of Ephraim, (1 Chronicles 7:24) and foundress of the Beth-horons and of a town called after her Uzzen-sherah, (B.C. about 1445.) Sherebiah

(heat of Jehovah) a Levite in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 8:18,24) (B.C. 459.) When Ezra read the law to the people, Sherebiah was among the Levites who assisted him. (Nehemiah 8:7) He signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:12) Sheresh

(root), son of Machir the son of Manasseh by his wife Manchah. (1 Chronicles 7:16) (B.C. before 1419.) Sherezer

(prince of fire), one of the people's messengers mentioned in (Zechariah 7:2) Sheshach

(from the goddess Shach, reduplicated) is a term which occurs only in (Jeremiah 25:26; 51:41) where it is evidently used as a synonym for either Babylon or Babylonia. Sheshai

(noble), one of the three sons of Anak who dwelt in Hebron. (Numbers 13:22) (B.C. 1445.) Sheshan

(Noble), a descendant of Jerahmeel the son of Hezron. (1 Chronicles 2:31,34,35) (B.C. after 1690.) Sheshbazzar

(worshipper of fire), the Chaldean or Persian name given to Zerubbabel in (Ezra 1:8,11; 6:14,18) [Zerubbabel] Sheth

(compensation). •The patriarch Seth. (1 Chronicles 1:1) •In the Authorized Version of (Numbers 24:17) not a proper name, but there is reason to regard it as an appellative. Read instead of "the sons of Sheth." "the suns of tumult." Comp. (Jeremiah 48:45) Shethar

(Pers. a star), one of the seven princes of Persia and Media. (Esther 1:14) (B.C. 483.) Shetharboznai

(Pers. star of splendor), a Persian officer of rank in the reign of Darius Hystaspes. (Ezra 5:3,6; 6:6,13) (B.C. 320.) Sheva

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

(Jehovah contends). •The scribe or royal secretary of David. (2 Samuel 20:26) He is called elsewhere Meraiah, (2 Samuel 8:17) Shisha, (1 Kings 4:3) And SHANSHA. (1 Chronicles 18:16) (B.C. 1015.) •Son of Caleb ben-Hezron by his concubine Maachah. (1 Chronicles 2:49) (B.C. about 1445.) Shewbread

(Exodus 25:30; 35:13; 39:36) etc. literally "bread of the face" or "faces." Shew-bread was unleavened bread placed upon a table which stood in the sanctuary together with the seven-branched candlestick and the altar of incense. See (Exodus 25:23-30) for description of this table. Every Sabbath twelve newly baked loaves, representing the twelve tribes of Israel, were put on it in two rows, six in each, and sprinkled with incense, where they remained till the following Sabbath. Then they were replaced by twelve new ones, the incense was burned, and they were eaten by the priests in the holy place, out of which they might not be removed, The title "bread of the face" seems to indicate that bread through which God is seen, that is, with the participation of which the seeing of God is bound up, or through the participation of which man attains the sight of God whence it follows that we have not to think of bread merely as such as the means of nourishing the bodily life, but as spiritual food as a means of appropriating and retaining that life which consists In seeing the face of God. Shibboleth

(a stream), (Judges 12:6) is the Hebrew word which the Gileadites under Jephthah made use of at the passage of the Jordan, after a victory over the Ephraimites, to test the pronunciation of the sound sh by those who wished to cross over the river. The Ephraimites, it would appear, in their dialect substituted for sh the simple sound s ; and the Gileadites, regarding every one who failed to pronounce sh as an Ephraimite and therefore an enemy, put him to death accordingly. In this way there fell 42,000 Ephraimites. There is no mystery in this particular word. Any word beginning with the sound sh would have answered equally well as a test. Shibmah

(properly Sibmah). [Shebam] Shicron

(drunkenness), one of the landmarks at the western end of the north boundary of Judah. (Joshua 15:11) only. It lay between Ekron (Akir) and Jabneel (Yebna). Shield

The ordinary shield consisted of a framework of wood covered with leather; it thus admitted of being burnt. (Ezekiel 39:9) It was frequently cased with metal, either brass or copper; its appearance in this case resembled gold when the sun shone on it, 1 Macc. 6:39 and to this, rather than to the practice of smearing blood on the shield we may refer the redness noticed by. Nahum. (Nahum 2:3) The surface of the shield was kept bright by the application of oil as implied in (Isaiah 21:5) The shield was worn on the left arm, to which it was attached by a strap. Shields of state were covered with beaten gold. Shields were suspended about public buildings for ornamental purposes. (1 Kings 10:17) In the metaphorical language of the Bible the shield generally represents the protection of God: e.g. (Psalms 3:3; 28:7) but in (Psalms 47:9) it is applied to earthly rulers and in (Ephesians 6:18) to faith. [Arms, Armor] Shiggaion

(Psalms 7:1) a particular kind of psalm, the specific character of which is now not known perhaps a "wild, mournful ode."

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Shihon

(ruin), a town of Issachar, named only in (Joshua 19:19) Eusebius mentions it as then existing "near Mount Tabor." Shihor Of Egypt

[Sihor] Shihorlibnath

(black of whiteness), named only in (Joshua 19:26) as one of the landmarks of the boundary of Asher. (probably the little stream called on the map of Pal. Ord. Survey Wady en Nebra, "which enters the Mediterranean a little south of Athlit." The name would come from the turgid character of the stream contrasted with the white and glistening sands of its shore.—ED.) Shilhi

(armed), the father of Azubah the mother of Jehoshaphat (1 Kings 22:42; 2 Chronicles 20:31) (B.C. before 946.) Shilhim

(fountains), one of the cities in the southern portion of the tribe of Judah. (Joshua 15:32) Shillem

(requital), son of Naphtali and an ancestor of the family of the Shillemites. (Genesis 46:24; Numbers 26:49) Shillemites, The

[Shillem] Shiloah, The Waters Of

a certain soft-flowing stream, (Isaiah 8:6) better known under the later name of Siloam -the only perennial spring of Jerusalem. Shiloh

(place of rest), a city of Ephraim. In (Judges 21:19) it is said that Shiloh is "on the north side of Bethel, on the east side of the highway that goeth up from Bethel to Shechem and on the south of Lebonah." In agreement with this the traveller of our own city, going north from Jerusalem, lodges the first night at Beitin, the ancient Bethel; the next day, at the distance of a few hours, turns aside to the right, in order to visit Seilun, the Arabic for Shiloh; and then passing through the narrow wady which brings him to the main road, leaves el-Lebban, the Lebonah of Scripture, on the left, as he pursues "the highway" to Nublus, the ancient Shechem. [Shechem] Shiloh was one of the earliest and most sacred of the Hebrew sanctuaries. The ark of the covenant, which had been kept at Gilgal during the progress of the conquest, (Joshua 17:1) seq., was removed thence on the subjugation of the country, and kept at Shiloh from the last days of Joshua to the time of Samuel. (Joshua 18:10; Judges 18:31; 1 Samuel 4:3) It was here the Hebrew conqueror divided among the tribes the portion of the west Jordan region which had not been already allotted. (Joshua 18:10; 19:51) In this distribution, or an earlier one, Shiloh fell within the limits of Ephraim. (Joshua 16:5) The ungodly conduct of the sons of Eli occasioned the loss of the ark of the covenant, which had been carried into battle against the Philistines, and Shiloh from that time sank into insignificance. It stands forth in the Jewish history as a striking example of the divine indignation. (Jeremiah 7:12)

In the Authorized Version of the Bible Shiloh is once used as the name of a person, in a very difficult passage, in (Genesis 49:10) "The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him shall the gathering of the people be." Supposing that the translation is correct, the meaning of the word is peaceable or pacific, and the allusion is

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

either to Solomon, whose name has a similar signification, or to the expected Messiah, who in (Isaiah 9:6) is expressly called the Prince of Peace. [Messiah] Other interpretations, however, of the passage are given, one of which makes it refer to the city of this name. [See the following article] It might be translated "The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor the ruler's staff from between his feet, till he shall go to Shiloh." In this case the allusion would be to the primacy of Judah in war, (Judges 1:1,2; 20:18; Numbers 2:3; 10:14) which was to continue until the promised land was conquered and the ark of the covenant was solemnly deposited at Shiloh. Shiloni

This word occurs in the Authorized Version only in (Nehemiah 11:5) where it should be rendered—as it is in other cases— "the Shilonite," that is the descendant of Sheluh the youngest son of Judah. Shilonite, The

that is, the native or resident of Shiloh; a title ascribed only to Ahijah. (1 Kings 11:29; 12:15; 15:29; 2 Chronicles 9:29; 10:15) Shilonites, The

are mentioned among the descendants of Judah dwelling in Jerusalem at a date difficult to (1 Chronicles 8:5) They are doubtless the members of the house of Shelah, who in the Pentateuch are more accurately designated Shelanites. Shilshah

(strong), son of Zophah of the tribe of Asher. (1 Chronicles 7:37) (B.C. before 1015.) Shimea

(fame). •Son of David by Beth-shean. (1 Chronicles 3:5) (B.C. 1045.) •A Merarite Levite. (1 Chronicles 6:30) (15). •A Gershonite Levite, ancestor of Asaph the minstrel. (1 Chronicles 6:39) (24). (B.C. before 1200.) •The brother of David, (1 Chronicles 20:7) elsewhere called Shamma, Shimma and Shimeah. Shimeah

Brother of David, and father of Jonathan and Jonadab, (2 Samuel 21:21) called also Shammah, Shimea, and Shimma. (B.C. about 1060.) •

•A descendant of Jehiel, the father or founder of Gibeon. (1 Chronicles 8:32) (B.C. perhaps 536.) Shimeam

(their fame), a descendant of Jehiel, the founder or prince of Gibeon. (1 Chronicles 9:38) Called Shimeah in (1 Chronicles 8:32) Shimeath

(feminine of Shimeah), an Ammonitess, mother of Jozachar or Zabad, one of the murderers of King Joash. (2 Kings 12:21) (22); 2Chr 24:26 (B.C. 809.) Shimei

(renowned). •Son of Gershon the son of Levi, (Numbers 3:18; 1 Chronicles 6:17,29; 23:7,9,10; Zechariah 12:13) called Shimi in (Exodus 6:17) (B.C. after 1706.) •Shimei the son of Gera, a Benjamite of the house of Saul, who lived at Bahurim. (B.C. 1023.) When David and his suite were seen descending the long defile, on his flight from Absolom, (2 Samuel 16:5-13) the whole feeling of the clan of Benjamin burst forth without restraint in the person of Shimei. He ran along the ridge, cursing and throwing stones at the king and is companions.

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

The next meeting was very different. The king was now returning from his successful campaign. Just as he was crossing the Jordan, (2 Samuel 19:18) the first person to welcome him was Shimei who threw himself at David's feet in abject penitence. But the king's suspicions were not set at rest by this submission; and on his death-bed he recalls the whole scene to the recollection of his son Solomon. Solomon gave Shimei notice that from henceforth he must consider himself confined to the walls of Jerusalem, on pain of death. (1 Kings 3:36,37) For three years the engagement was kept. At the end of that time for the purpose of capturing two slaves who had escaped to Gath, he went out on his ass, and made his journey successfully. Ibid. (1 Kings 2:40) On his return the king took him at his word, and he was slain by Benaiah. Ibid. (1 Kings 2:41-46) •One of the adherents of Solomon at the time of Adonjah's usurpation. (1 Kings 1:8) (B.C.1015.) •Solomon's commissariat officer in Benjamin. (1 Kings 4:18) •Son of Pedaiah, and brother of Zerubbabel. (1 Chronicles 3:19) (B.C. 536.) •A Simeonite, son of Zacchur. (1 Chronicles 4:26,27) •Son of Gog, a Reubenite. (1 Chronicles 5:4) •A Gershonite Levite, son of Jahath. (1 Chronicles 6:42) •Son of Jeduthun, and chief of the tenth division of the singers. (1 Chronicles 25:17) •The Ramathite who was over David's vineyards. (1 Chronicles 27:27) •A Levite of the sons of Heman, who took part in the purification of the temple under Zedekiah. (2 Chronicles 29:14) (B.C. 726.) •The brother of Cononiah the Levite, in the reign of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 31:12,13) Perhaps the same as the preceding. •A Levite in the time of Ezra who had married a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:23) •One of the family of Hashum, who put away his foreign wife at Ezra's command. (Ezra 10:33) •A son of Bani, who had also married a foreign wife, and put her away. (Ezra 10:38) (B.C. 459.) •Son of Kish, a Benjamite, and ancestor of Mordecai. (Esther 2:5) (B.C. before 479). Shimeon

(hearing (prayer), a lay man of Israel, of the family of Harim, who had married a foreign wife, and divorced her in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 10:31) (B.C. 458.) Shimhi

(renowned), a Benjamite, apparently the same as Shema the son of Elpaal. (1 Chronicles 8:21) Shimi

= Shimei, 1. (Exodus 6:17) Shimites, The

the descendants of Shimei the son of Gershon. (Numbers 3:21) Shimon

(desert). The four sons of Shimon are enumerated in an obscure genealogy of the tribe of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:20) Shimrath

(guard), a Benjamite, of the sons of Shimhi. (1 Chronicles 8:21) Shimri

(vigilant). •A Simeonite son of Shemaiah. (1 Chronicles 4:37) (B.C. after 1450.) •The father of Jediael, one of David's guard. (1 Chronicles 11:45) (B.C. before 1043.) •A Kohathite Levite in the reign of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 29:13) (B.C. 726.)

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Shimrith

(feminine of Shimri, vigilant), a Moabitess, mother of Jehozabad, one of the assassins of King Joash. (2 Chronicles 24:26) In (2 Kings 12:21) she is called Shomer. (B.C. 839.) Shimrom

(1 Chronicles 7:1) [Shimron] Shimron

(watch-height). •A city of Zebulun. (Joshua 11:1; 19:15) Its full appellation was perhaps Shimron-meron. •The fourth son of Issachar according to the lists of Genesis, (Genesis 46:13) and Numbers, (Numbers 26:24) and the head of the family of the Shimronites. Shimronites, The

[Shimron] Shimronmeron

(watch-height of Meron). The king of Shimron-meron is mentioned as one of the thirty-one kings vanquished by Joshua. (Joshua 12:20) It is probably the complete name of the place elsewhere called Shimron, a city of Zebulun. (Joshua 11:1; 19:15) Shimshai, Or Shimshai

(sunny), the scribe or secretary of Kehum, who was a kind of satrap of the conquered province of Judea and of the colony of Samaria, supported by the Persian court. (Ezra 4:8,13,17,23) He was apparently an Aramaean, for the letter which he wrote to Artaxerxes was in Syriac. (Ezra 4:7) (B.C. 529.) Shinab

(splendor of the father, i.e. God), the king of Admah in the time of Abraham. (Genesis 14:2) (B.C. 1912.) Shinar

(country of two rivers), the ancient name of the great alluvial tract through which the Tigris and Euphrates pass before reaching the sea—the tract known in later times as Chaldaea or Babylonia. It was a plain country, where brick had to be used for stone and slime for mortar. (Genesis 11:3) Among the cities were Babel (Babylon), Erech or Orech (Orchoe), Calneh or Calno (probably Niffer), and Accad, the site of which is unknown. It may be suspected that Shinar was the name by which the Hebrews originally knew the lower Mesopotamian country where they so long dwelt, and which Abraham brought with him from "Ur of the Chaldees." Ship

No one writer in the whole range of Greek and Roman literature has supplied us with so much information concerning the merchant-ships of the ancients as St. Luke in the narrative of St. Paul's voyage to Rome. Acts 27,28. It is important to remember that he accomplished it in three ships: first, the Adramyttian vessel which took him from Caesarea to Myra, and which was probably a coasting-vessel of no great size, (Acts 27:1-6) secondly, the large Alexandrian corn-ship, in which he was wrecked on the coast of Malta (Acts 27:6-28) :1; and thirdly, another large Alexandrian corn-ship, in which he sailed from Malta by Syracuse and Rhegium to Puteoli. (Acts 28:11-13) •Size of ancient ships .—The narrative which we take as our chief guide affords a good standard for estimating this. The ship, in which St. Paul was wrecked had persons on board, (Acts 27:37) besides a cargo of wheat, ibid. (Acts 27:10,38) and all these passengers seem to have been taken on to Puteoli in another ship, ibid, (Acts 28:11) which had its own crew and its own cargo. Now,

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in modern transport-ships, prepared far carrying troops, it is a common estimate to allow a toll and a half per man. On the whole, if we say that an ancient merchant-ship might range from 500 to 1000 tons, we are clearly within the mark. •Steering apparatus .—Some commentators have fallen into strange perplexities from observing that in (Acts 27:40) ("the fastenings of the rudders") St. Luke uses the plural. Ancient ships were in truth not steered at all by rudders fastened or hinged to the stern, but by means of two paddle-rudders one on each quarter, acting in a rowlock or through a port-hole as the vessel might be small or large. •Build and ornaments of the hull.—It is probable that there was no very marked difference between the bow and the stern. The "hold," (Jonah 1:5) would present no special peculiarities. That personification of ships which seems to be instinctive led the ancients to paint an eye on each side of the bow. Comp. (Acts 27:15) An ornament of the ship which took Paul from Malta to Pozzuoli is more explicitly referred to. The "sign" of that ship, (Acts 28:11) was Castor and Pollux; and the symbols of those heroes were doubtless painted or sculptured on each side of the bow. •Under-girders .—The imperfection of the build, and still more (see below, 6) the peculiarity of the rig, in ancient ships, resulted in a greater tendency than in our times to the starting of the pranks and consequently to leaking and foundering. Hence it was customary to take on board peculiar contrivances, suitable called helps," (Acts 27:17) as precautions against such dangers. These were simply cables or chains, which in case of necessity could be passed round the frame of the ship, at right angles to its length, and made tight. •Anchors.—Ancient anchors were similar in form to those which we use now. except that they were without flukes. The ship in which Paul was sailing had four anchors on board. The sailors on this occasion anchored by the stern. (Acts 27:29) •Masts, sails, ropes and yards . -The rig of an ancient ship was more simple and clumsy than that employed in modern times. Its great feature was one large mast, with one large square sail fastened to a yard of great length. Hence the strain upon the hull, and the danger of starting the planks, were greater than under the present system, which distributes the mechanical pressure more evenly over the whole ship. Not that there were never more masts than one, or more sails than one on the same mast, in an ancient merchantman; but these were repetitions, so to speak, of the same general unit of rig. Another feature of the ancient, as of the modern, feature of the ancient, as of ship is the flag at the top of the mast. Isai l.c., and (Isaiah 30:17) We must remember that the ancients had no compass, and very imperfect charts and instruments, if any at all. •Rate of sailing .—St. Paul's voyages furnish excellent data for approximately estimating this; and they are quite in harmony with what we learn from other sources. We must notice here, however—what commentators sometimes curiously forget-that winds are variable. That the voyage between Troas and Philippi, accomplished on one occasion, (Acts 16:11,12) in two days, occupied on another occasion, (Acts 20:6) five days. With a fair wind an ancient ship would sail fully seven knots an hour. •Sailing before the wind.—The rig which has been described is, like the rig of Chinese junks, peculiarly favorable to a quick run before the wind. (Acts 16:11; 27:16) It would, however, be a great mistake to suppose that ancient ships could not work to windward. The superior rig and build, however, of modern ships enable them to sail nearer to the wind than was the case in classical times. A modern ship, if the weather is not very boisterous, will sail within six points of the wind. To an ancient vessel, of which the hull was more clumsy and the yards could not be braced so

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tight, it would be safe to assign seven points as the limit. Boats on the Sea Of Galilee .—In the narrative of the call of the disciples to be "fishers of men," (Matthew 4:18-22; Mark 1:16,20; Luke 5:1-11) there is no special information concerning the characteristics of these. With the large population round the Lake of Tiberias, there must have been a vast number of both fighting-boats and pleasure-boats, and boat-building must have been an active trade on its shores. Shiphi

(abundant), a Simeonite, father of Ziza, a prince of the tribe in the time of Hezekiah. (1 Chronicles 4:37) (B.C. 726.) Shiphmite The

probably, though not certainly, the native of Shepham. (1 Chronicles 27:27) Shiphrah

(brightness), (Exodus 1:15) the name of one of the two midwives of the Hebrews who disobeyed the command of Pharaoh to kill the mule children. vs. (Exodus 1:15-21) (B.C. 1570.) Shiphtan

(judicial), father of Kemuel, a prince of the tribe of Ephraim. (Numbers 34:24) (B.C. before 1450.) Shiramoth

(name of heights, i.e. Jehovah). •A Levite of the second degree in the choir formed by David. (1 Chronicles 15:18,20; 16:5) (B.C. 104.) •A Levite in the reign of Jehoshaphat. (2 Chronicles 17:8) (B.C. 909.) Shisha

(Jehovah contends), father of Elihoreph and Ahiah, the royal secretaries in the reign of Solomon. (1 Kings 4:3) He is apparently the same as Shavsha, who held the same position under David. (B.C. 1000.) Shishak

king of Egypt, the Sheshonk I. of the monuments, first sovereign of the Bubastite twenty-second dynasty. His reign offers the first determined syncronism of Egyptian and hebrew history. The first year of Shishak would about correspond to the 26th of Solomon (B.C. 989), and the 20th of shishak to the 5th of Rehoboam. Shishak at the beginning of his reign received the fugitive Jeroboam, (1 Kings 11:40) and it was probably at the instigation of Jeroboam that he attacked Rehoboam. "He took the fenced cities which [pertained] to Judah, and came to Jerusalem." he exacted all the treasures of his city from Rehoboam, and apparently made him tributary. (1 Kings 14:25,26; 2 Chronicles 12:2-9) Shishak has left a record of this expedition sculptured on the wall of the great temple of El-Karnak. It is a list of the countries, cities and tribes conquered or ruled by him, or tributary to him. Shittah Tree, Shittim

(Heb. shittah, the thorny), is without doubt correctly referred to some species of Acacia, of which three or four kinds occur in the Bible lands. The woof of this tree—perhaps the Acacia seyal is more definitely signified—was extensively employed in the construction of the tabernacle. See Exod 25,26,36,37,38. (This tree is sometimes three or four feet in diameter (Tristram). The wood is close-grained and hard, of a fine orange-brown color, and admirably adapted to cabinet work.—ED.) The A. seyal is very common in some parts of the peninsula of Sinai. It yields the well-known substance called gum arabic, which is obtained by incisions in the bark, but it is

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impossible to say whether the ancient Jews were acquainted with its use. From the tangled thicket into which the stem of this tree expands, Stanley well remarks that hence is to be traced the use of the plural form of the Heb. noun shittim, the singular number occurring once only in the Bible. This acacia must not be confounded with the tree (Robinia pseudo-acacia) popularly known by this name in England, which is a North American plant, and belongs to a different genus and suborder. The true acacias belong to the order Leguminosae, sub-order Mimoseae . Shittim

(the acacias), the place of Israel's encampment between the conquest of the transjordanic highlands and the passage of the Jordan. (Numbers 25:1; 33:49; Joshua 2:1; 3:1; Micah 6:5) Its full name appears to be given in the first of these passage—Abel has-Shittim, "the meadow, or moist place, of the acacias." it was "in the Arboth-moab, by Jordan-Jericho," (Numb 22:1; 26:3; 31:12; 33:48,49 That is to say, it was in the Arabah or Jordan valley, opposite Jericho. Shiza

(splendor), a Reubenite, father of Adina, (1 Chronicles 11:42) one of David's warriors. (B.C. 1043.) Shoa

(rich), a proper name which occurs only in (Ezekiel 23:23) in connection with Pekod and Koa. The three apparently designate districts of Assyria with which the southern kingdom of Judah has been intimately connected, and which were to be arrayed against it for punishment. Shobab

(rebellious). •Son of David by Bath-sheba. (2 Samuel 5:14; 1 Chronicles 3:5; 14:4) (B.C. about 1046.) •Apparently the son of Caleb the son of Hezron by his wife Azubah. (1 Chronicles 2:18) (B.C. after 1706.) Shobach

(expansion), the general of Hadarezer king of the Syrians of Zoba, who was defeated by David. (2 Samuel 10:15-18) In (1 Chronicles 19:16) he is called Shophach. (B.C. 1034.) Shobai

(glorious). The children of Shobai were a family of the door-keepers of the temple, who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:42; Nehemiah 7:45) (B.C. before 536.) Shobal

(flowing). •Second son of Seir the Horite, (Genesis 36:20; 1 Chronicles 1:38) and one of the "dukes" of the Horites (Genesis 36:29) •Son of Caleb the son of Hur and founder or prince of Kirjath-jearim. (1 Chronicles 2:50,52) (B.C. about 1445.) •In (1 Chronicles 4:1,2) Shobal appears with Hur among the sons of Judah. He is possibly the same as the preceding. Shobek

(free), one of the heads of the people who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:24) (B.C. 446.) Shobi

(glorious) son of Nahash of Rabbah of the children of Ammon. (2 Samuel 17:27) He was one of the first to meet David at Mahanaim on his flight from Absalom. (B.C. 1023.)

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Shocho

(2 Chronicles 28:18) one of the four varieties of the name Socoh. Shochoh

(1 Samuel 17:1) same as Socoh. Shoco

(2 Chronicles 11:7) a variation in the Authorized Version of the name Socoh. Shoe

[Sandal] Shoham

(onyx), a Merarite Levite, son of Jaaziah. (1 Chronicles 24:27) (B.C.1043.) Shomer

(keeper). •An Asherite, (1 Chronicles 7:32) also called Shamer. ver. (1 Chronicles 7:34) •The father (mother ?) of Jehozabad who slew King Joash. (2 Kings 12:21) In the parallel passage in (2 Chronicles 24:26) the name is converted into the feminine form Shimrith, who is further described as a Moabitess. [Shimrith] (B.C. 839.) Shophach

(expansion), Shobach, the general of Hadarezer. (1 Chronicles 19:16,18) (B.C. 1034.) Shophan

(bareness), one of the fortified towns on the east of Jordan which were taken possession of and rebuilt by the tribe of Gad. (Numbers 32:35) Shoshannim

(lilies). "To the chief musician upon Shoshannim" is a musical direction to the leader of the temple choir which occurs in (Psalms 45:1; 69:1) and most probably indicates the melody "after" or "in the manner of" (Authorized Version upon") which the psalms were to be sung. Shoshannim-eduth occurs in the same way in the title of (Psalms 80:1) ... As the words now stand they signify "lilies, a testimony," and the two are separated by a large distinctive accent. In themselves they have no meaning in the present text, and must therefore be regarded as probably a fragment of the beginning of an older psalm with which the choir were familiar. Shuah

(wealth). •Son of Abraham by Keturah. (Genesis 25:2; 1 Chronicles 1:32).) (B.C. before 1820.) •Properly Shuchah brother of Chelub. (1 Chronicles 4:11) •The father of Judah's wife, (Genesis 38:2,12) called also Shua in the Authorized Version. (B.C. before 1725.) Shual

(a jackal), son of Zophah, an Asherite. (1 Chronicles 7:36) (B.C. after 1445.) Shual, The Land Of

a district named in (1 Samuel 13:17) only. It is pretty certain from the passage that it lay north of Michmash. If therefore it be identical with the "land of Shalim" (1 Samuel 9:4)—as is not impossible—we have the first and only clue yet obtained to Saul's journey in quest of the asses. The name Shual has not yet been identified. Shubael

Shebuel the son of Gershon. (1 Chronicles 24:20) •

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•Shebuel the son of Heman the minstrel. (1 Chronicles 25:20) Shuham

(pit-digger) son of Dan and ancestor of the Shuhamites. (Numbers 26:42) Shuhamites, The

[Shuham] Shuhite

(decendant of Shuah). This ethnic appellative "Shuhite" is frequent in the book of Job, but only as the apithet of one person, Bildad The local indications of this book point to a region on the western side of Chaldea, bordering on Arabia; and exactly in this locality, above Hit and on both sides of the Euphrates, are found, in the Assyrian inscriptions, the Tsahi, a powerful people. It is probable that these were the Shuhites. Shulamite, The

one of the personages in the poem of Solomon's (Song of Solomon 6:13) The name denotes a woman belonging to a place called Shulem, which is probably the same as Shunem. [Shunem] If, then, Shulamite and Shunammite are equivalent, we may conjecture that the Shunammite who was the object of Solomon's passion was Abishag, the most lovely girl of her day, and at the time of David's death the most prominent person at Jerusalem. Shumathites, The

one of the four families who sprang from Kirjath-jearim. (1 Chronicles 2:53) Shunammite, The

i.e. the native of Shunem, is applied to two persons: Abishag, the nurse of King David, (1 Kings 1:3,15; 2:17,21,22) and the nameless hostess of Elisha. (2 Kings 4:12,25; 36) Shunem

(double resting-place), one of the cities allotted to the tribe of Issachar. (Joshua 13:18) It is mentioned on two occasions— (1 Samuel 23:4; 2 Kings 4:8) It was besides the native place of Abishag. (1 Kings 1:3) It is mentioned by Eusebius as five miles south of Mount Tabor, and then known us Sulem. This agrees with the position of the present Solam, a village three miles north of Jezreel and five from Gilboa. Shuni

(fortunate), son of Gad, and founder of the family of the Shunites. (Genesis 46:16; Numbers 26:15) (B.C. 1706.) Shunites, The

the descendants of Shuni. Shupham

[Shuppim] Shuphamites, The

the descendants of Shupham or Shephupham, the Benjamite. (Numbers 26:3) Shuppim

(serpents). In the genealogy of Benjamin "Shuppim and Huppim, the children of Ir," are reckoned in (1 Chronicles 7:12) It is the same as Iri the son of Bela the son of Benjamin, so that Shuppim was the great-grandson of Benjamin. Shur

(a wall), a place just without the eastern border of Egypt. Shur is first mentioned in the narrative of Haggar's flight from Sarah. (Genesis 16:7) Abraham afterward "dwelled between Kadesh and

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Shur, and sojourned in Gerar." (Genesis 20:1) It is also called Ethami. The wilderness of Shur was entered in the Israelites after they had crossed the Red Sea. (Exodus 15:22,23) It was also called the wilderness of Etham. (Numbers 33:8) Shur may have been a territory town east of the ancient head of the Red Sea; and from its being spoken of as a limit, it was probably the last Arabian town before entering Egypt. Shushan, Or Susa

(a lily), is said to have received its name from the abundance of the lily (shushan or shushanah) in its neighborhood. It was originally the capital of the country called in Scripture Elam, and by the classical writers Susis or Susiana. In the time of Daniel Susa was in the possession of the Babylonians, to whom Elam had probably passed at the division of the Assyrian empire made by Cyaxares and Nabopolassar. (Daniel 8:2) The conquest of Babylon by Cyrus transferred Susa to the Persian dominion; and it was not long before the Achaemenian princes determined to make it the capital of their whole empire and the chief place of their own residence. According to some writers the change was made by Cyrus; according to others it had at any rate taken place before the death of Cambyses; but, according to the evidence of the place itself and of the other Achaemenian monuments, it would seem most probable that the transfer was really the work of Darius Hystaspes. Nehemiah resided here. (Nehemiah 1:1) Shushan was situated on the Ulai or Choaspes. It is identified with the modern Sus or Shush, its ruins are about three miles in circumference. (Here have been found the remains of the great palace build by Darius, the father of Xerxes, in which and the surrounding buildings took place the scenes recorded in the life of Esther. The great central hall was 343 feet long by 244 feet wide. The king's gate, says Schaff, where Mordecai sat, "was probably a hall 100 feet square, 150 feet from the northern portico. Between these two was probably the inner court, where Esther appeared before the king."—ED.) Shushaneduth

(the lily of testimony), (Psalms 60:1) ... is probably an abbreviation of "Shoshannim-eduth." (Psalms 80:1) ... [Shoshannim] Shuthalhites, The

[Shuthelah] Shuthelah

(noise of breaking), head of an Ephraimite family, called after him Shuthalhites, (Numbers 26:35) and lineal ancestor of Joshua the son of Numb (1 Chronicles 7:20-27) Sia

The "children of Sia" were a family of Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 7:47) The name is written Siaha in (Ezra 2:44) and SUD in 1 Esd. 5:29. Siaha

- Sia. (Ezra 2:44) Sibbecai

= Sibbechai the Hushathite. Sibbechai

(a weaver), one of David's guard, and eighth captain for the eighth month of 24,000 men of the king's 1043.) He belonged to one of the principal families of Judah, the Zarhites or the descendants of Zerah, and is called "the Hushathite," probably from the place of his birth. Sibbechai's great exploit, which gave him a place among the mighty men of David's army, was his single combat

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with Saph or Sippai, tire Philistine giant, in the battle at, Gezer or Gob. (2 Samuel 21:18; 1 Chronicles 20:4) Sibboleth

the Ephraimite pronunciation of the word Shibboleth. (Judges 12:6) [Shibboleth] Sibmah

[Shebam] Sibraim

(twofold hope), one of the landmarks on the northern boundary of the holy land as stated by Ezekiel. (Ezekiel 47:16) It has not been identified. Sichem

(Genesis 12:6) [Shechem] Sicyon

(sish'eon), 1 Macc. 15:23, a celebrated Greek city in Peloponnesus, upon the Corinthian Gulf. Siddim

(field, plain), The vale of, a place named only in one passage of Genesis— (Genesis 14:3,8,10) It was one of that class of valleys which the Hebrews designated by the word emek . This term appears to have been assigned to a broad, flattish tract, sometimes of considerable width, enclosed on each side by a definite range of hills. It has so far a suitable spot for the combat between the four and five kings, ver. 8; but it contained a multitude of bitumen-pits sufficient materially to affect the issue of the battle. In this valley the kings of the five allied cities of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim and Bela seem to, have awaited the approach of the invaders. It is therefore probable that it was in the neighborhood of the "plain or circle of Jordan" in which those cities stood. If we could venture, as some have done, to interpret the latter clause of ver. 3 "which is near," or "which is at, or by, the Salt Sea," then we might agree with Dr. Robinson and others in identifying the valley of Siddim with the enclosed plain which intervenes between the south end of the lake and the range of heights which terminate the Ghor and commence the Wady Arabah . But the original of the passage seems to imply that the Salt Sea covers the actual space formerly occupied by the vale of Siddim. [Sea, The Salt, THE SALT] Side

a city on the coast of Pamphylia, 10 or 12 miles to the east of the river Eurymedon. It is mentioned in 1 Macc. 15:23, and was a colony of Cumaeans. Sidon

the Greek form of the Phoenician name Zidon. [Zidon, Or Sidon] Sidonians

the Greek form of the word Zidonians, usually so exhibited in the Authorized Version of the Old Testament. It occurs (3:9; Joshua 13:4,6; Judges 3:3; 1 Kings 5:6) [Zidon, Or Sidon] Sihimma

the third son of Jesse, and brother of David. (1 Chronicles 2:13) Same as Shimeah. Sihon

(warrior) king of the Amorites when Israel arrived on the borders of the promised land. (Numbers 21:21) (B.C. 1451.) Shortly before the time of Israel's arrival he had dispossessed the Moabites of a splendid territory, driving them south of the natural bulwark of the Amen. Ibid. (Numbers 21:26-29) When the Israelite host appeared, he did not hesitate or temporize like Balak, but at once gathered

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his people together and attacked them. But the battle was his last. He and all his host were destroyed, and their district from Amen to Jabbok became at once the possession of the conqueror. Sihor

(dark), accurately Shi'hor, once The Shihor, or Shihor of Egypt, when unqualified a name of the Nile. It is held to signify "the black" or "turbid." In Jeremiah the identity of Shihor with the Nile seems distinctly stated. (Jeremiah 2:18) The stream mentioned in (1 Chronicles 13:5) is possibly that of the Wadi l' Areesh . Silas

(contracted form of Silvanus, woody), an eminent member of the early Christian Church, described under that name in the Acts but as Silvanus in St. Paul's epistles. He first appears as one of the leaders of the church at Jerusalem (Acts 15:22) holding the office of an inspired teacher. (Acts 15:32) His name, derived from the Latin silva, "wood," betokens him a Hellenistic Jew, and he appears to have been a Roman citizen. (Acts 16:37) He was appointed as a delegate to accompany Paul and Barnabas on their return to Antioch with the decree of the Council of Jerusalem. (Acts 15:22,32) Having accomplished this mission, he returned to Jerusalem. (Acts 15:33) He must, however, have immediately revisited Antioch, for we find him selected by St. Paul as the companion of his second missionary journey. (Acts 15:40; Acts 17:10) At Berea he was left behind with Timothy while St. Paul proceeded to Athens, (Acts 17:14) and we hear nothing more of his movements until he rejoined the apostle at Corinth. (Acts 18:5) His presence at Corinth is several times noticed. (2 Corinthians 1:19; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 2 Thessalonians 1:1) Whether he was the Silvanus who conveyed St. Peter's first epistle to Asia Minor, (1 Peter 5:12) is doubtful the probabilities are in favor of the identity. A tradition of very slight authority represents Silas to have become bishop of Corinth. Silk

The only undoubted notice of silk in the Bible occurs in (Revelation 18:12) where it is mentioned among the treasures of the typical Babylon. It is however, in the highest degree probable that the texture was known to the Hebrews from the time that their commercial relations were extended by Solomon. The well-known classical name of the substance does not occur in the Hebrew language. Silla

(a highway). "The house of Millo which goeth down to Silla" was the scene of the murder of King Joash. (2 Kings 12:20) What or where Sills was is entirely matter of conjecture. Some have suggested the pool of Siloam. Siloah, The Pool Of

properly "the pool of Shelach." (Nehemiah 3:15) [Siloam] Siloam

(sent). Shiloach, (Isaiah 8:6) Siloah, (Nehemiah 3:15) Siloam, (John 9:11) Siloam is one of the few undisputed localities in the topography of Jerusalem; still retaining its old name (with Arabic modification, Silwan), while every other pool has lost its Bible designation. This is the more remarkable as it is a mere suburban tank of no great size, and for many an age not particularly good or plentiful in its waters, though Josephus tells us that in his day they were both "sweet and abundant." A little way below the Jewish burying-ground, but on the opposite side of the valley, where the Kedron turns slightly westward and widens itself considerable, is the fountain of the Virgin, or Um'ed'Deraj, near the beginning of that saddle-shaped projection of the temple hill supposed to be the Ophel of The Bible and the Ophlas of Josephus. At the back part of this fountain

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a subterraneous passage begins, through which the water flows, and through which a man may make his way, sometimes walking erect, sometimes stooping, sometimes kneeling, and sometime crawling, to Siloam. This conduit is 1708 feet long, 16 feet high at the entrance, but only 16 inches at its narrowest tributaries which sent their waters down from the city pools or temple wells to swell Siloam. It enters Siloam at the northwest angle; or rather enters a small rock-cut chamber which forms the vestibule of Siloam, about five or six feet broad. To this you descend by a few rude steps, under which the water pours itself into the main pool. This pool is oblong, about 52 feet long, 18 feet broad and 19 feet deep; but it is never filled, the water either passing directly through or being maintained at a depth of three or four feet. The present pool is a ruin, with no moss or ivy to make it romantic; its sides fallen in; its pillars broken; its stair a fragment; its walls giving way; the edge of every stone was round or sharp by time; in some parts mere debris, though around its edges wild flowers, and among other plants the caper trees, grow luxuriantly. The present pool is not the original building; it may be the work of crusaders, perhaps even improved by Saladin, whose affection for wells and pools led him to care for all these things. Yet the spot is the same. This pool, which we may call the second, seems anciently to have poured its waters into a third before it proceeded to water the royal gardens. This third is perhaps that which Josephus calls "Solomon's pool," and which nehemiah calls the "king's pool." (Nehemiah 2:14) The expression in (Isaiah 8:6) "waters of Shiloah that go softly," seems to point to the slender rivulet, flowing gently though once very profusely out of Siloam into the lower breadth of level where the king's gardens, or royal paradise, stood, and which is still the greenest spot about the holy city. Siloam is a mere spot even to the Moslem; much more to the Jew. It was to Siloam that the Levite was sent with the golden pitcher on the "last and great day of the feast" of Tabernacles; it was from Siloam that he brought the water which was then poured over the sacrifice, in memory of the water from the rock of Rephidim; and it was to this Siloam water that the Lord pointed when he stood in the temple on that day and cried, "If any man thirst let him come unto me and drink." The Lord sent the blind man to wash, not in, as our version has it, but at (eis), the pool of siloam; for it was the clay from his eyes that was to be washed off. Siloam, Tower, In

(Luke 13:4) Of this we know nothing definitely beyond these words of the Lord. In connection with Ophel, there is mention made of "a tower that lieth out," (Nehemiah 3:26) and there is no unlikelihood in connecting this projecting tower with the tower in Siloam, while one may be almost excused for the conjecture that its projection was the cause of its ultimate fall. Silvanus

[Silas] Silver

In very early times silver was used for ornaments, (Genesis 24:53) and for vessels of various kinds. Images for idolatrous worship were made of silver or overlaid with it, (Exodus 20:23; Hosea 13:2); Habb 2:19 Bar. 6:39, and the manufacture of silver shrines for Diana was a trade in Ephesus. (Acts 19:24) But its chief use was as a medium of exchange, and throughout the Old Testament we find "silver" used for money, like the French argent . Silver was brought to Solomon from Arabia, (2 Chronicles 9:14) and from Tarshish, (2 Chronicles 9:21) which supplied the markets of Tyre. (Ezekiel 27:12) From Tarshish it came int he form of plates, (Jeremiah 10:9) like those on which the sacred books of the Singhalese are written to this day. Spain appears to have been the chief source whence silver was obtained by the ancients. Possibly the hills of Palestine may have

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

afforded some supply of this metal. Silvers mixed with alloy is referred to in (Jeremiah 6:30) and a finer kind, either purer in itself or more thoroughly purified, is mentioned in (Proverbs 8:19) Silverlings

a word used once only in the Authorized Version, (Isaiah 7:23) as a translation of the Hebrew word elsewhere rendered "silver" or "money." Simeon

(heard). •The second of Jacob's son by Leah. His birth is recorded in (Genesis 29:33) The first group of Jacob's children consists, besides Simeon, of the three other sons of Leah—Reuben, Levi, Judah. Besides the massacre of Shechem, (Genesis 34:25) the only personal incident related of Simeon is the fact of his being selected by Joseph as the hostage for the appearance of Benjamin. (Genesis 42:19,24,36; 43:23) The chief families of the tribe of Simeon are mentioned int he lists of (Genesis 46:10) At the census of Sinai Simeon numbered 59,300 fighting men. (Numbers 1:23) When the second census was taken, at Shittim, the numbers had fallen to 22,200, and it was the weakest of all the tribes. This was no doubt partly due to the recent mortality following the idolatry of Peor, but there must have been other causes which have escaped mention. To Simeon was allotted a portion of land out of the territory of Judah, on its southern frontier, which contained eighteen or nineteen cities, with their villages, spread round the venerable well of Beersheba. (Joshua 19:1-8; 1 Chronicles 4:28-33) Of these places, with the help of Judah, the Simeonites possessed themselves, (Judges 1:3,17) and there they were found, doubtless by Joab, residing in the reign of David. (1 Chronicles 4:31) What part of the tribe took at the time of the division of the kingdom we are not told. The only thing which can be interpreted into a trace of its having taken any part with the northern kingdom are the two casual notices of (2 Chronicles 15:9) and 2Chr 34:6 Which appear to imply the presence of Simeonites there in the reigns of Asa and Josiah. On the other hand the definite statement of (1 Chronicles 4:41-43) proves that at that time there were still some of them remaining in the original seat of the tribe, and actuated by all the warlike, lawless spirit of their progenitor. •A devout Jew, inspired by the Holy Ghost, who met the parents of our Lord in the temple, took him in his arms, and gave thanks for what he saw and knew of Jesus. (Luke 2:25-35) There was a Simeon who succeeded his father Hillel as president of the Sanhedrin about A.D. 13, and whose son Gamaliel was the Pharisee at whose feet St. Paul was brought up. (Acts 22:3) It has been conjectured that he may be the Simeon of St. Luke. Simeon Niger

(Acts 13:1) [Niger] Simon

(contracted form of Simeon, a hearing). •Son of Mattathias. [Maccabees] •Son of Onias the high priest, whose eulogy closes the "praise of famous men" in the book of Ecclesiasticus, ch. 4. (B.C. 302-293.) •A "governor of the temple" in the time of Seleucus Philopator, whose information as to the treasures of the temple led to the sacrilegious attach of Heliordorus. 2 Macc. 3:4, etc. (B.C. 175.) •Simon the brother of Jesus. The only undoubted notice of this Simon occurs in (Matthew 13:55; Mark 6:3) He has been identified by some writers with Simon the Canaanite, and still more

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generally with Symeon who became bishop of Jerusalem after the death of James, A.D. 62. The former of these opinions rests on no evidence whatever, nor is the later without its difficulties. •Simon the Canaanite, one of the twelve apostles, (Matthew 10:4; Mark 3:18) otherwise described as Simon Zelotes, (Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13) (A.D. 28.) The latter term, which is peculiar to Luke, is the Greek equivalent for the Chaldee term preserved by Matthew and Mark. [Canaanite, The] Each of these equally points out Simon as belonging to the faction of the Zealots, who were conspicuous for their fierce advocacy of the Mosaic ritual. •Simon of Cyrene, a Hellenistic Jew, born at Cyrene, on the north coast of Africa, who was present at Jerusalem at the time of the crucifixion of Jesus, either as an attendant at the feast, (Acts 2:10) or as one of the numerous settlers at Jerusalem from that place. (Acts 6:9) (A.D. 30.) Meeting the procession that conducted Jesus to Golgotha, as he was returning from the country, he was pressed into the service to bear the cross, (Matthew 27:32; Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26) when Jesus himself was unable to carry it any longer. Comp. (John 19:17) Mark describes him as the father of Alexander and Rufus, perhaps because this was the Rufus known to the Roman Christians, (Romans 16:13) for whom he more especially wrote. •Simon, a resident at Bethany, distinguished as "the leper." It is not improbable that he had been miraculously cured by Jesus. In his house Mary anointed Jesus preparatory to his death and burial. (Matthew 26:6) etc.; Mark 14:3 etc.; John 12:1 etc. •Simon Magus, a Samaritan living in the apostolic age, distinguished as a sorcerer or "magician," from his practice of magical arts. (Acts 8:9) According to ecclesiastical writers he was born at Gitton, a village of Samaria, and was probably educated at Alexandria in the tenets of the Gnostic school. He is first introduced to us as practicing magical arts in a city of Samaria, perhaps Sychar, (Acts 8:5) comp. John 4:5 And with such success that he was pronounced to be "the power of God which is called great." (Acts 8:10) The preaching and miracles of Philip having excited his observation, he became one of his disciples, and received baptism at his hands, A.D. 36,37. Subsequently he witnessed the effect produced by the imposition of hands, as practiced by the apostles Peter and John, and, being desirous of acquiring a similar power for himself, he offered a sum of money for it. His object evidently was to apply the power to the prosecution of magical arts. The motive and the means were equally to be reprobated; and his proposition met with a severe denunciation from Peter, followed by a petition on the part of Simon, the tenor of which bespeaks terror, but not penitence. (Acts 8:9-24) The memory of his peculiar guilt has been perpetuated in the word simony, as applied to all traffic in spiritual offices. Simon's history, subsequent to his meeting with Peter, is involved in difficulties. Early Church historians depict him as the pertinacious foe of the apostle Peter, whose movements he followed for the purpose of seeking encounters, in which he was signally defeated. He is said to have followed the apostle to Rome. His death is associated with this meeting. According to Hippolytus, the earliest authority on the subject, Simon was buried alive at his own request, in the confident assurance that he would rise on the third day. •Simon Peter. [Peter] •Simon, a Pharisee, in whose house a penitent woman anointed the head and feet of Jesus. (Luke 7:40) •Simon the tanner, a Christian convert living at Joppa, at whose house Peter lodged. (Acts 9:43) The house was near the seaside, (Acts 10:6,32) for the convenience of the water. (A.D. 37.) •Simon the father of Judas Iscariot. (John 6:71; 13:2,26)

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Simri

(vigilant), properly Shimri, son of Hosah, a Merarite Levite in the reign of David. (1 Chronicles 26:10) Sin

a city of Egypt, mentioned only by Ezekiel. (Ezekiel 30:15,16) The name is Hebrew, or at least Semitic, perhaps signifying clay . It is identified in the Vulgate with Pelusium, "the clayey or muddy" town. Its antiquity may perhaps be inferred from the mention of "the wilderness of Sin" in the journeys of the Israelites. (Exodus 16:1; Numbers 33:11) Ezekiel speaks of Sin as "Sin the strongholds of Egypt." (Ezekiel 30:15) This place was held by Egypt from that time until the period of the Romans. Herodotus relates that Sennacherib advanced against Pelusium, and that near Pelusium Cambyses defeated Psammenitus. In like manner the decisive battle in which Ochus defeated the last native king, Nectanebes, was fought near this city. Sin Offering

The sin offering among the Jews was the sacrifice in which the ideas of propitiation and of atonement for sin were most distinctly marked. The ceremonial of the sin offering is described in Levi 4 and 6. The trespass offering is closely connected with the sin offering in Leviticus, but at the same time clearly distinguished from it, being in some cases offered with it as a distinct part of the same sacrifice; as, for example, in the cleansing of the leper. Levi 14. The distinction of ceremonial clearly indicates a difference in the idea of the two sacrifices. The nature of that difference is still a subject of great controversy. We find that the sin offerings were— •Regular . (a) For the whole people, at the New Moon, Passover, Pentecost, Feast of Trumpets and Feast of Tabernacles, (Numbers 28:15-29; 38:1) ... besides the solemn offering of the two goats on the Great Day of Atonement. Levi 16 (B) For the priests and Levites at their consecration, (Exodus 29:10-14,36) besides the yearly sin offering (a, bullock) for the high priest on the Great Day of Atonement. (Leviticus 16:2) Special . For any sin of "ignorance" and the like recorded in Levi 4 and 5. It is seen that in the law most of the sins which are not purely ceremonial are called sins of "ignorance," see (Hebrews 9:7) and in Numb 15:30 It is expressly said that while such sins call be atoned for by offerings, "the soul that doeth aught presumptuously " (Heb. with a high hand) "shall be cut off from among his people." "His iniquity shall he upon him." Comp. (Hebrews 10:20) But here are sufficient indications that the sins here called "of ignorance" are more strictly those of "negligence" or "frailty" repented of by the unpunished offender, as opposed to those of deliberate and unrepentant sin. It is clear that two classes of sacrifices, although distinct, touch closely upon each other. It is also evident that the sin offering was the only regular and general recognition of sin in the abstract and accordingly was for more solemn and symbolical in it's ceremonial; the trespass offering was confined to special cases, most of which related to the doing of some material damage, either to the holy things or to man. Josephus declares that the sin offering is presented by those "who fall into sin in ignorance." and the trespass offering by "one who has sinned and is conscious of his sin. But has no one to convict him thereof." Without attempting to decide so difficult and so controverted a question, we may draw the following conclusions. First, that the sin offering was for the more solemn and comprehensive of the two sacrifices. Secondly, that the sin offering looked more to the guilt of the sin done, irrespective of its consequences, while the trespass offering looked to the evil consequences of sin, either against the service of God or against man, and to the duty of atonement, as far as atonement was possible. Thirdly, that in the sin offering especially we find symbolized the acknowledgment of sinfulness as inherent

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

in man, and of the need of expiation by sacrifice to renew the broken covenant between man and God. In considering this subject, it must he remembered that the sacrifices of the law had a temporal as well as a spiritual significance and effect. They restored sin offender to his place in the commonwealth of Israel; they were therefore an atonement to the King of Israel for the infringement of his low. Sin, Wilderness Of

a tract of the wilderness which the Israelites reached after leaving the encampment by the Red Sea. (Numbers 33:11,23) Their next halting-place, (Exodus 16:1; 17:1) was Rephidim, probably the Wady Feiran [Rephidim]; on which supposition it would follow that Sin must lie between that way and the coast of the Gulf of Suez, and of course west of Sinai. In the wilderness of Sin the manna was first gathered, and those who adopt the supposition that this was merely the natural product of the tarfa bush find from the abundance of that shrub in Wady es-Sheikh, southeast of Wady Ghurundel, a proof of local identity. Sina, Mount

the Greek form of the well-known name Sinai. (Acts 7:30,38) Sinai, Or Sinai

(thorny). Nearly in the centre of the peninsula which stretches between the horns of the Red Sea lies a wedge of granite, grunstein and porphyry rocks rising to between 8000 and 9000 feet above the sea. Its shape resembles st scalene triangle. These mountains may be divided into two great masses-that of Jebel Serbal (8759 feet high), in the northwest above Wady Feiran, and the central group, roughly denoted by the general name of Sinai. This group rises abruptly from the Wady es-Sheikh at its north foot, first to the cliffs of the Ras Sufsafeh, behind which towers the pinnacle of Jebel Musa (the Mount of Moses), and farther back to the right of it the summit of Jebel Katerin (Mount St. Catherine, 8705 feet) all being backed up and. overtopped by Um Shamer (the mother of fennel, 9300 feet), which is the highest point of the whole peninsula. •Names .—These mountains are called Horeb, and sometimes Sinai. Some think that Horeb is the name of the whole range, and Sinai the name of a particular mountain; others, that Sinai is the range and Horeb the particular mountain; while Stanley suggests that the distinction is one of usage, and that both names are applied to the same place. •The mountain from which the law was given .—Modern investigators have generally come to the conclusion that of the claimants Jebel Serba, Jebel Musa and Ras Sufsafeh, the last the modern Horeb of the monks—viz. the northwest and lower face of the Jebel Musa, crowned with a range of magnificent cliffs, the highest point called Ras Sufsafeh, as overlooking the plain er Rahah—is the scene of the giving of the law, and that peak the mountain into which Moses ascended. (But Jebel Musa and Ras Sufsafeh are really peaks of the Same mountain, and Moses may have received the law on Jebel Musa, but it must have been proclaimed from Ras Sufsafeh. Jebel Musa is the traditional mount where Moses received the law from God. It is a mountain mass two miles long and one mile broad, The southern peak is 7363 feet high; the northern peak, Ras Sufsafeh is 6830 feet high. It is in full view of the plain er Rahah, where the children of Israel were encamped. This plain is a smooth camping-ground, surrounded by mountains. It is about two miles long by half a mile broad, embracing 400 acres of available standing round made into a natural amphitheatre by a low semicircular mount about 300 yards from the foot of the mountain. By actual measurement it contains over 2,000,000 square yards, and with its branches over 4,000,000 square yards, so that the whole people of Israel, two million in number, would find ample accommodations for

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

seeing and hearing. In addition to this, the air is wonderfully clear, both for seeing and hearing. Dean Stanley says that "from the highest point of Ras Sufsafeh to its lower peak, a distance of about 60 feet, the page of a book distinctly but not loudly read was perfectly audible." It was the belief of the Arabs who conducted Niebuhr that they could make themselves heard across the Gulf of Akabah,—a belief fostered by the great distance to which the voice can actually be carried. There is no other place known among all these mountains so well adapted for the purpose of giving and receiving the law as this rocky pulpit of Ras Sufsafeh and the natural amphitheatre of er Rahah. Sinim

a people noticed in (Isaiah 49:12) as living at the extremity of the known world. They may be identified with the classical Sinoe, the inhabitants of the southern part of China. Sinite

a tribe of Canaanites, (Genesis 10:17; 1 Chronicles 1:15) whose position is to be sought for in the northern part of the Lebanon district. Sion

(lofty), Mount. •One of the various names of Mount Hermon. (4:48) only. •The Greek form of the Hebrew name Zion, the famous mount of the temple. 1 Macc. 4:37,60; 5:54; 6:48,62; 7:33; 10:11; 14:27; (Hebrews 12:22; Revelation 14:1) [Jerusalem] Siphmoth

(fruitful), one of the places in the south of Judah which David frequented during his freebooting life. (1 Samuel 30:28) Sippai

(threshold), Saph, one of the sons of Rephaim, or "the giants," slain by Sibbechai at Gezer. (1 Chronicles 20:4) (B.C. about 1050.) Sirach

the father of Jesus (Joshua), the writer of the Hebrew original of the book of Ecclesiasticus. (B.C. 310-220.) Sirah

(the turning), The well of, from which Abner was recalled by Joab to his death at Hebron. (2 Samuel 3:26) only. It was apparently on the northern road from Hebron. There is a spring and reservoir on the western side of the ancient northern road, about one mile out of Hebron, which is called Ain Sara. Sirion

(breastplate), one of the various names of Mount Hermon, that by which it was known to the Zidonians. (3:9) The use of the name in (Psalms 29:6) (slightly altered in the original—Shirion instead of Sirion) is remarkable. Sisamai

a descendant of Sheshan in the line of Jerahmeel. (1 Chronicles 2:40) (B.C. about 1450.) Sisera

(battle array). •Captain of the army of Jabin king of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor. He himself resided in Harosheth of the Gentiles. The particulars of the rout of Megiddo and of Sisera's flight and death are drawn out under the heads of Barak, Deborah, Jael, Kishon. (B.C. 1296.)

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•After a long interval the name appears in the lists of Nethinim who returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:53; Nehemiah 7:55) It doubtless tells of Canaanite captives devoted to the lowest offices of the temple. (B.C. before 536.) Sitnah

(strife), the second of the two wells dug by Isaac in the valley of Gerar, the possession of which the herdmen of the valley disputed with him. (Genesis 26:21) Sivan

[Month] Slave

The institution of slavery was recognized, though not established, by the Mosaic law with a view to mitigate its hardship and to secure to every man his ordinary rights. I. Hebrew slaves.— •The circumstances under which a Hebrew might be reduced to servitude were— (1) poverty; (2) the commission of theft; and (3) the exercise of paternal authority. In the first case, a man who had mortgaged his property, and was unable to support his family, might sell himself to another Hebrew, with a view both to obtain maintenance and perchance a surplus sufficient to redeem his property. (Leviticus 25:25,39) (2) The commission of theft rendered a person liable to servitude whenever restitution could not be made on the scale prescribed by the law. (Exodus 22:1,3) The thief was bound to work out the value of his restitution money in the service of him on whom the theft had been committed. (3) The exercise of paternal authority was limited to the sale of a daughter of tender age to be a maidservant, with the ulterior view of her becoming the concubine of the purchaser. (Exodus 21:7) •The servitude of a Hebrew might be terminated in three ways: (1) by the satisfaction or the remission of all claims against him; (2) by the recurrence of the year of jubilee, (Leviticus 25:40) and (3) the expiration of six years from the time that his servitude commenced. (Exodus 21:2; 15:12) (4) To the above modes of obtaining liberty the rabbinists added, as a fourth, the death of the master without leaving a son, there being no power of claiming the salve on the part of any heir except a son. If a servant did not desire to avail himself of the opportunity of leaving his service, he was to signify his intention in a formal manner before the judges (or more exactly at the place of judgment), and then the master was to take him to the door-post, and to bore his ear through with an awl, (Exodus 21:6) driving the awl into or "unto the door," as stated in (15:17) and thus fixing the servant to it. A servant who had submitted to this operation remained, according to the words of the law, a servant "forever." (Exodus 21:6) These words are however, interpreted by Josephus and by the rabbinsts as meaning until the year of jubilee. •The condition of a Hebrew servant was by no means intolerable. His master was admonished to treat him, not "as a bond-servant, but as an hired servant and as a sojourner," and, again, "not to rule over him with rigor." (Leviticus 25:39,40,43) At the termination of his servitude the master was enjoined not to "let him go away empty," but to remunerate him liberally out of his flock, his floor and his wine-press. (15:13,14) In the event of a Hebrew becoming the servant of a "stranger," meaning a non-Hebrew, the servitude could be terminated only in two ways, viz. by the arrival of the year of jubilee, or by the repayment to the master of the purchase money paid for the servant, after deducting a sum for the value of his services proportioned to the length of his servitude. (Leviticus 25:47-55) A Hebrew woman might enter into voluntary servitude on the score of poverty, and in this case she was entitled to her freedom after six years service, together with her usual gratuity at leaving, just as in the case of a man. (15:12,13) Thus far we have seen little that is

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

objectionable in the condition of Hebrew servants. In respect to marriage there were some peculiarities which, to our ideas, would be regarded as hardships. A master might, for instance, give a wife to a Hebrew servant for the time of his servitude, the wife being in this case, it must be remarked, not only a slave but a non-Hebrew. Should he leave when his term had expired, his wife and children would remain the absolute property of the master. (Exodus 21:4,5) Again, a father might sell his young daughter to a Hebrew, with a view either of marrying her himself or of giving her to his son. (Exodus 21:7-9) It diminishes the apparent harshness of this proceeding if we look on the purchase money as in the light of a dowry given, as was not unusual, to the parents of the bride; still more, if we accept the rabbinical view that the consent of the maid was required before the marriage could take place. The position of a maiden thus sold by her father was subject to the following regulations: (1) She could not "go out as the men-servants do," i.e. she could not leave at the termination of six years, or in the year of jubilee, if her master was willing to fulfill the object for which he had purchased her. (2) Should he not wish to marry her, he should call upon her friends to procure her release by the repayment of the purchase money. (3) If he betrothed her to his son, he was bound to make such provision for her as he would for one of his own daughters. (4) If either he or his son, having married her, took a second wife, it should not be to the prejudice of the first. (5) If neither of the three first specified alternatives took place, the maid was entitled to immediate and gratuitous liberty. (Exodus 21:7-11) The custom of reducing Hebrews to servitude appears to have fallen into disuse subsequent to the Babylonish captivity. Vast numbers of Hebrews were reduced to slavery as war-captives at different periods by the Phoenicians, (Joel 3:6) the Philistines, (Joel 3:6; Amos 1:6), the Syrians, 1 Macc. 3:42; 2 Macc. 8:11, the Egyptians, Joseph Ant. xii. 2,3, and above all by the Romans. Joseph. B.C. vi. 9,3. II. Non-Hebrew slaves.— •The majority of non-Hebrew slaves were war-captives, either of the Canaanites who had survived the general extermination of their race under Joshua or such as were conquered from the other surrounding nations. (Numbers 31:26) ff. Besides these, many were obtained by purchase from foreign slave-dealers, (Leviticus 25:44,45) and others may have been resident foreigners who were reduced to this state by either poverty or crime. The children of slaves remained slaves, being the class described as "born in the house," (Genesis 14:14; 17:12; Ecclesiastes 2:7) and hence the number was likely to increase as time went on. The average value of a slave appears to have been thirty shekels. (Exodus 21:32) •That the slave might be manumitted appears from (Exodus 21:26,27; Leviticus 19:20) •The slave is described as the "possession" of his master, apparently with a special reference to the power which the latter had of disposing of him to his heirs, as he would any other article of personal property. (Leviticus 25:45,46) But, on the other hand, provision was made for the protection of his person. (Exodus 21:20; Leviticus 24:17,22) A minor personal injury, such as the loss of an eye or a tooth, was to be recompensed by giving the servant his liberty. (Exodus 21:26,27) The position of the slave in regard to religious privileges was favorable. He was to be circumcised, (Genesis 17:12) and hence was entitled to partake of the paschal sacrifice, (Exodus 12:44) as well as of the other religious festivals. (12:12,18; 16:11,14) The occupations of slaves were of a menial character, as implied in (Leviticus 25:39) consisting partly in the work of the house and partly in personal attendance on the master. It will be seen that the whole tendency of the Bible legislation was to mitigate slavery, making it little than hired service, and to abolish it, as indeed it was practically abolished among the Jews six hundred years before Christ.

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Slime

translated bitumen in the Vulgate. The three instances in which it is mentioned in the Old Testament are illustrated by travellers and historians. It is first spoken of as used for cement by the builders in the plain of Shinar or Babylonia. (Genesis 11:3) The bitumen pits in the vale of Siddim are mentioned in the ancient fragment of Canaanitish history, (Genesis 14:10) and the ark of papyrus in which Moses was placed was made impervious to water by a coating of bitumen and pitch. (Exodus 2:3) Herodotus, i. 179, tells us of the bitumen found at Is, the modern Heet, a town of Babylonia, eight days journey from Babylon. (Bitumen, or asphalt, is "the product of the decomposition of vegetable and animal substances. It is usually found of a black or brownish-black color, externally not unlike coal, but it varies in a consistency from a bright, pitchy condition, with a conchoidal fracture, to thick, viscid masses of mineral tar."—Encyc. Brit. In this last state it is called in the Bible slime, and is of the same nature as our petroleum, but thicker, and hardens into asphalt. It is obtained in various places in Europe, and even now occasionally from the Dead Sea.—ED.) Sling

[Arms, Armor] Smith

[Handicraft] Smyrna

(myrrh), a city of Asia Minor, situated on the AEgean Sea, 40 miles north of Ephesus. Allusion is made to it in (Revelation 2:8-11) It was founded by Alexander the Great, and was situated twenty shades (2 1/2 miles) from the city of the same name, which after a long series of wars with the Lydians had been finally taken and sacked by Halyattes. The ancient city was built by some piratical Greeks 1500 years before Christ. It seems not impossible that the message to the church in Smyrna contains allusions to the ritual of the pagan mysteries which prevailed in that city. In the time of Strabo the ruins of the old Smyrna still existed, and were partially inhabited, but the new city was one of the most beautiful in all Asia. The streets were laid out as near as might be at right angles. There was a large public library there, and also a handsome building surrounded with porticos which served as a museum. It was consecrated as a heroum to Homer, whom the Smyrnaeans claimed as a countryman. Olympian games were celebrated here, and excited great interest. (Smyrna is still a large city of 180,000 to 200,000 inhabitants, of which a larger proportion are Franks than in any other town in Turkey; 20,000 are Greeks, 9000 Jews, 8000 Armenians, 1000 Europeans, and the rest are Moslems.—ED.) Snail

The Hebrew word shablul occurs only in (Psalms 58:8) The rendering of the Authorized Version is probably correct. The term would denote either a limax or a helix, which are particularly •

noticeable for the slimy track they leave behind them, by which they seem to waste themselves away. To this, or to the fact that many of them are shrivelled up among the rocks in the long heat of the summer, the psalmist refers. •The Hebrew word chomet occurs only as the name of some unclean animal in (Leviticus 11:30) Perhaps some kind of lizard may be intended. Snow

This historical books of the Bible contain only two notices of snow actually falling— (2 Samuel 23:20) 1Macc 13:22; but the allusions in the poetical books are so numerous that there can be no

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doubt as to its being an ordinary occurrence in the winter months. (Psalms 147:16; 148:8) The snow lies deep in the ravines of the highest ridge of Lebanon until the summer is far advanced and indeed never wholly disappears; the summit of Hermon also perpetually glistens with frozen snow. From these sources probably the Jews obtained their supplies of ice for the purpose of cooling their beverages in summer. (Proverbs 25:13) The liability to snow must of course vary considerably in a country of such varying altitude as Palestine. At Jerusalem snow often falls to the depth of a foot or more in january or February, but it seldom lies. At Nazareth it falls more frequently and deeply,a nd it has been observed to fall even in the maritime plain of Joppa and about Carmel. So

"So, king of Egypt," is once mentioned in the Bible— (2 Kings 17:4) So has been identified by different writers with the first and second kings of the Ethiopian twenty-fifth dynasty, called by Manetho, Sabakon (Shebek) and Sebichos (Shebetek). Soap

The Hebrew term borith is a general term for any substance of cleansing qualities. As, however, it appears in (Jeremiah 2:22) in contradistinction to nether, which undoubtedly means "natron" or mineral alkali, it is fair to infer that borith refers to vegetable alkali, or some kind of potash, which forms one of the usual ingredients in our soap. Numerous plants capable of yielding alkalies exist in Palestine and the surrounding countries; we may notice one named hubeibeh (the Salsola kali of botanists) found near the Dead Sea, the ashes of which are called el-kuli, from their strong alkaline properties. Socho

(bushy). (1 Chronicles 4:18) Probably one of the towns called Socoh, in Judah, though which of the two cannot be ascertained. Sochoh

another form of the name which is more correctly given in the Authorized version as Socoh. The present one occurs in (1 Kings 4:10) and is therefore probably, though not certainly, Socoh, 1. Socoh

the name of two towns in the tribe of Judah. •In the district of the Shefelah. (Joshua 15:35; 1 Samuel 17:1; 2 Chronicles 11:7; 8:18) In the time of Eusebius it bore the name of Socchoth, and lay between eight and nine Roman miles from Eleutheropolis, on the road to Jerusalem. It may be identified with esh-Shuweikeh, in the western part of the mountains of Judah. From this village probably came Antigonus of Soco, who lived about the commencement of the third century B.C. •Also a town of Judah, but in the mountain district. (Joshua 15:48) It has been discovered about 10 miles southwest of Hebron; bearing, like the other Socoh, the name of esh-Shuweikeh . Sodi

(intimate), the father of Geddiel, the spy selected from the tribe of Zebulun. (Numbers 13:10) (B.C. 1490.) Sodom

(burning), one of the most ancient cities of Syria. It is commonly mentioned in connection with Gomorrah, but also with Admah and Zeboim, and on one occasion— (Genesis 14:1) ...—with Bela or Zoar. Sodom was evidently the chief town in the settlement. The four are first named in the ethnological records of (Genesis 10:19) as belonging to the Canaanites. The next mention of the

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name of Sodom, (Genesis 13:10-13) gives more certain indication of the position of the city. Abram and Lot are standing together between Bethel and Ai, ver. 3, taking a survey of the land around and below them. Eastward of them, and absolutely at their feet, lay the "circle of Jordan." The whole circle was one great oasis—"a garden of Jehovah." ver. 10. In the midst of the garden the four cities of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboim appear to have been situated. It is necessary to notice how absolutely the cities are identified with the district. In the subsequent account of their destruction, (Genesis 19:1) ... the topographical terms are employed with all the precision which is characteristic of such early times. The mention of the Jordan is conclusive as to the situation of the district, for the Jordan ceases where it enters the Dead Sea, and can have no existence south of that point. The catastrophe by which they were destroyed is described in (Genesis 19:1) ... as a shower of brimstone and fire from Jehovah. However we may interpret the words of the earliest narrative, one thing is certain—that the lake was not one of the agents in the catastrophe. From all these passages, though much is obscure, two things seem clear: •That Sodom and the rest of the cities of the plain of Jordan stood on the north of the Dead Sea; •That neither the cities nor the district were submerged by the lake, but that the cities were overthrown and the land spoiled, and that it may still be seen in its desolate condition. When, however, we turn to more modern views, we discover a remarkable variance from these conclusions. •The opinion long current that the five cities were submerged in the lake, and that their remains—walls, columns and capitals—might he still discerned below the water, hardly needs refutation after the distinct statement and the constant implication of Scripture. But, •A more serious departure from the terms of the ancient history is exhibited in the prevalent opinion that the cities stood at the south end of the lake. This appears to, have been the belief of Josephus and Jerome. It seems to have been universally held by the medieval historians and pilgrims, and it is adopted by modern topographers probably without exception. There are several grounds for this belief; but the main point on which Dr. Robinson rests his argument is the situation of Zoar. (a) "Lot," says he, "fled to Zoar, which was near to Sodom; and Zoar lay almost at the southern end of the present sea, probably in the month of Wady Kerak ." (b) Another consideration in favor of placing the cities at the southern end of the lake is the existence of similar names in that direction. (c) A third argument, and perhaps the weightiest of the three, is the existence of the salt mountain at the south of the lake, and its tendency to split off in columnar masses presenting a rude resemblance to the human form. But it is by no means certain that salt does not exist at other spots round the lake. (d) (A fourth and yet stronger argument is drawn from the fact that Abraham saw the smoke of the burning cities from Hebron. (e) A fifth argument is found in the numerous lime-pits found at that southern end of the Dead Sea. Robinson, Schaff, Baedeker, Lieutenant Lynch and others favor this view.—ED.) It thus appears that on the situation of Sodom no satisfactory conclusion can at present be readied: On the one hand, the narrative of Genesis seems to state positively that it lay at the northern end of the Dead Sea. On the other hand, long-continued tradition and the names of the existing spots seem to pronounce with almost equal positiveness that it was at its southern end. Of the catastrophe which destroyed the city and the district of Sodom we can hardly hope ever to form a satisfactory conception. Some catastrophe there undoubtedly was but what secondary agencies, besides fire, were employed in the accomplishment of the punishment cannot be safely determined in the almost total absence of exact scientific description of the natural features of the ground round the lake. We may suppose, however, that the actual agent in the ignition and destruction of the cities had been of the nature of a tremendous

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thunder-storm accompanied by a discharge of meteoric stones, (and that these set on fire the bitumen with which the soil was saturated, and which was used in building the city. And it may be that this burning out of the soil caused the plain to sink below the level of the Dead Sea, and the waters to flow over it—if indeed Sodom and its sister cities are really under the water.—ED.) The miserable fate of Sodom and Gomorrah is held up as a warning in numerous passages of the Old and New Testaments. (Mark 8:11; 2 Peter 2:6; Jude 1:4-7) Sodoma

(Romans 2:29) In this place alone the Authorized Version has followed the Greek and Vulgate form of the well-known name Sodom. Sodomites

This word does not denote the inhabitants of Sodom; but it is employed in the Authorized Version of the Old Testament for those who practiced as a religious rite the abominable and unnatural vice from which the inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah have derived their lasting infamy. Solomon

(peaceful). I. Early life and occasion to the throne .—Solomon was the child of David's old age, the last born of all his sons. (1 Chronicles 3:5) The yearnings of the "man of war" led him to give to the new-horn infant the name of Solomon (Shelomoth, the peaceful one). Nathan, with a marked reference to the meaning of the king's own name (David, the darling, the beloved one), calls the infant Jedidiah (Jedid'yah), that is, the darling of the Lord. (2 Samuel 11:24,25) He was placed under the care of Nathan from his earliest infancy. At first, apparently, there was no distinct purpose to make him the heir. Absalom was still the king's favorite son, (2 Samuel 13:37; 18:33) and was looked on by the people as the destined successor. (2 Samuel 14:13; 15:1-6) The death of Absalom when Solomon was about ten years old left the place vacant, and David pledged his word in secret to Bath-sheba that he, and no other, should be the heir. (1 Kings 1:13) The words which were spoken somewhat later express, doubtless, the purpose which guided him throughout. (1 Chronicles 28:9; 20) His son's life should not he as his own had been, one of hardships and wars, dark crimes and passionate repentance, but, from first to last, be pure, blameless, peaceful, fulfilling the ideal of glory and of righteousness after which he himself had vainly striven. The glorious visions of (Psalms 72:1) ... may be looked on as the prophetic expansion of these hopes of his old age. So far,all was well. Apparently his influence over his son's character was one exclusively for good. Nothing that we know of Bath-sheba lends us to think of her as likely to mould her son's mind and heart to the higher forms of goodness. Under these influences the boy grew up. At the age of ten or eleven he must have passed through the revolt of Absalom, and shared his father's exile. (2 Samuel 15:16) He would be taught all that priests or Levites or prophets had to teach. When David was old and feeble, Adonijah, Solomon's older brother attempted to gain possession of the throne; but he was defeated, and Solomon went down to Gihon and was proclaimed and anointed king. A few months more and Solomon found himself, by his father's death, the sole occupant of the throne. The position to which he succeeded was unique. Never before, and never after, did the kingdom of Israel take its place among the great monarchies of the East. Large treasures, accumulated through many years, were at his disposal. II. Personal appearance .—Of Solomon's personal appearance we have no direct description, as we have of the earlier kings. There are, however, materials for filling up the gap. Whatever higher mystic meaning may be latent in (Psalms 45:1) ... or the Song of Songs, we are all but compelled to think of them us having had at least a historical starting-point. They tell of one who was, in the eyes of the men of his own time, "fairer

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than the children of men," the face "bright, and ruddy" as his father's, (Song of Solomon 5:10; 1 Samuel 17:42) bushy locks, dark as the raven's wing, yet not without a golden glow, the eyes soft as "the eyes of cloves," the "countenance as Lebanon excellent as the cedars," "the chiefest among ten thousand, the altogether lovely." (Song of Solomon 5:13-18) Add to this all gifts of a noble, far-reaching intellect large and ready sympathies, a playful and genial humor, the lips "full of grace," and the soul "anointed" as "with the oil of gladness," (Psalms 45:1) ... and we may form some notion of what the king was like in that dawn of his golden prime. III. Reign .—All the data for a continuous history that we have of Solomon's reign are— (a) The duration of the reign, forty sears, B.C. 1015-975. (1 Kings 11:4) (b) The commencement of the temple in the fourth, its completion in the eleventh, year of his reign. (1 Kings 6:1,37,38) (c) The commencement of his own palace in the seventh, its completion in the twentieth, year. (1 Kings 7:1; 2 Chronicles 8:1) (d) The conquest of Hamath-zobah, and the consequent foundation of cities in the region of north Palestine after the twentieth year. (2 Chronicles 8:1-6) IV. Foreign policy .— •Egypt. The first act of the foreign policy of the new reign must have been to most Israelites a very startling one. He made affinity with Pharaoh, king of Egypt, by marrying his daughter (1 Kings 3:1) The immediate results were probably favorable enough. The new queen brought with her as a dowry the frontier city of Gezer. But the ultimate issue of alliance showed that it was hollow and impolitic. •Tyre. The alliance with the Phoenician king rested on a somewhat different footing. It had been a part of David's policy from the beginning of his reign. Hiram had been "ever a lover of David." As soon as he heard of Solomon's accession he sent ambassadors to salute him. A correspondence passed between the two kings, which ended in a treaty of commerce. The opening of Joppa as a port created a new coasting-trade, and the materials from Tyre were conveyed to that city on floats, and thence to Jerusalem. (2 Chronicles 2:16) In return for these exports, the Phoenicians were only too glad to receive the corn and oil of Solomon's territory. The results of the alliance did not end here. Now, for the first time in the history of the Jews, they entered on a career as a commercial people. •The foregoing were the two most important to Babylon alliances. The absence of any reference to Babylon and Assyria, and the fact that the Euphrates was recognized as the boundary of Solomon's kingdom, (2 Chronicles 9:26) suggests the inference that the Mesopotamian monarchies were at this time comparatively feeble. Other neighboring nations were content to pay annual tribute in the form of gifts. (2 Chronicles 9:28) •The survey of the influence exercised by Solomon on surrounding nations would be incomplete if we were to pass over that which was more directly personal the fame of his glory and his wisdom. Wherever the ships of Tarshish went, they carried with them the report, losing nothing in its passage, of what their crews had seen and heard. The journey of the queen of Sheba, though from its circumstances the most conspicuous, did not stand alone. V. Internal history .— •The first prominent scene in Solomon's reign is one which presents his character in its noblest aspect. God in a vision having offered him the choice of good things he would have, he chose wisdom in preference to riches or honor or long life. The wisdom asked for was given in large measure, and took a varied range. The wide world of nature, animate and inanimate, the lives and characters of men, lay before him, and he took cognizance of all but the highest wisdom was that wanted for the highest work, for governing and guiding, and the historian hastens to give an

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illustration of it. The pattern-instance is, in all its circumstances, thoroughly Oriental. (1 Kings 3:16-28) •In reference to the king's finances, the first impression of the facts given us is that of abounding plenty. Large quantities of the precious metals were imported from Ophir and Tarshish. (1 Kings 9:28) All the kings and princes of the subject provinces paid tribute in the form of gifts, in money and in kind, "at a fixed rate year by year." (1 Kings 10:25) Monopolies of trade contributed to the king's treasury. (1 Kings 10:28,29) The total amount thus brought into the treasury in gold, exclusive of all payments in kind, amounted to 666 talents. (1 Kings 10:14) •It was hardly possible, however, that any financial system could bear the strain of the king's passion for magnificence. The cost of the temple was, it is true, provided for by David's savings and the offerings of the people; but even while that was building, yet more when it was finished one structure followed on another with ruinous rapidity. All the equipment of his court, the "apparel" of his servants was on the same scale. A body-guard attended him, "threescore valiant men," tallest and handsomest of the sons of Israel. Forty thousand stalls of horses for his chariots, and twelve thousand horsemen made up the measure of his magnificence. (1 Kings 4:26) As the treasury became empty, taxes multiplied and monopolies became more irksome. •A description of the temple erected by Solomon is given elsewhere. After seven years and the work was completed and the day came to which all Israelites looked back as the culminating glory of their nation. •We cannot ignore the fact that even now there were some darker shades in the picture. He reduced the "strangers" in the land, the remnant of the Canaanite races, to the state of helots, and made their life "bitter with all hard bondage." One hundred and fifty-three thousand, with wives and children in proportion, were torn from their homes and sent off to the quarries and the forests of Lebanon. (1 Kings 5:15; 2 Chronicles 2:17,18) And the king soon fell from the loftiest height of his religious life to the lowest depth. Before long the priests and prophets had to grieve over rival temples to Molech, Chemosh, Ashtaroth and forms of ritual not idolatrous only, but cruel, dark, impure. This evil came as the penalty of another. (1 Kings 11:1-8) He gave himself to "strange women." He found himself involved in a fascination which led to the worship of strange gods. Something there was perhaps in his very "largeness of heart," so far in advance of the traditional knowledge of his age, rising to higher and wider thoughts of God, which predisposed him to it. In recognizing what was true in other forms of faith, he might lose his horror at what was false. With this there may have mingled political motives. He may have hoped, by a policy of toleration, to conciliate neighboring princes, to attract larger traffic. But probably also there was another influence less commonly taken into account. The widespread belief of the East in the magic arts of Solomon is not, it is believed, without its foundation of truth. Disasters followed before long as the natural consequence of what was politically a blunder as well as religiously a sin. VI. His literary works.—little remains out of the songs, proverbs, treatises, of which the historian speaks. (1 Kings 4:32,33) Excerpts only are given from the three thousand proverbs. Of the thousand and five songs we know absolutely nothing. His books represent the three stages of his life. The Song of Songs brings before us the brightness of his -youth. Then comes in the book of Proverbs, the stage of practical, prudential thought. The poet has become the philosopher, the mystic has passed into the moralist; but the man passed through both stages without being permanently the better for either. They were to him but phases of his life which he had known and exhausted, (Ecclesiastes

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1:1; Ecclesiastes 2:1) ... and therefore there came, its in the confessions of the preacher, the great retribution. Solomon, Wisdom Of

[Wisdom, The, Of Solomon, BOOK OF] Solomons Porch

[Palace; Temple]. Solomons Servants

(Children OF). (Ezra 2:55,58; Nehemiah 7:57,60) The persons thus named appear in the lists of the exiles who returned from the captivity. They were the descendants of the Canaanites who were reduced by Solomon to the helot state, and compelled to labor in the king's stone-quarries and in building his palaces and cities. (1 Kings 5:13,14; 9:20,21; 2 Chronicles 8:7,8) They appear to have formed a distinct order, inheriting probably the same functions and the same skill as their ancestors. Solomons Song

[Canticles] Son

The term "son" is used in Scripture language to imply almost any kind of descent or succession, as ben shanah, "son of a year," i.e. a year old; ben kesheth, "son of a bow," i.e. an arrow. The word bar is often found in the New Testament in composition, as Bar-timaeus. Soothsayer

[Divination] Sop

In eastern lands where our table utensils are unknown, the meat, with the broth, is brought upon the table in a large dish, and is eaten usually by means of pieces of bread clipped into the common dish. The bread so dipped is called. "It was such a piece of bread a sop dipped in broth that Jesus gave to Judas, (John 13:26) and again, in Matt 26:23 It is said "he that dippeth his hand with me in the dish," i.e. to make a sop by dipping a piece of bread into the central dish. Sopater

(saviour of his father), son or Pyrrhus or Berea, was one of the companions of St. Paul on his return from Greece into Asia. (Acts 20:4) (A.D. 55.) Sophereth

(writing). "The children of Sophereth" were a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel among the descendants of Solomon's servants. (Ezra 2:55; Nehemiah 7:57) (B.C. before 536.) Sorcerer

[Divination] Sorek

(red), The valley of, a wady in which lay the residence of Delilah. (Judges 16:4) It was possibly nearer Gaza than any other of the chief Philistine cities, since thither Samson was taken after his capture at Delilah's house. Sosipater

(saviour of his father), kinsman or fellow tribesman of St. Paul, (Romans 16:21) is probably the same person as Sopater of Berea. (A.D. 54.) Sosthenes

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(saviour of his nation) was a Jew at Corinth who was seized and beaten in the presence of Gallio. See (Acts 18:12-17) (A.D. 49.) Sotai

(changeful). The children of Sotai were a family of the descendants of Solomon's servants who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:55; Nehemiah 7:57) (B.C. before 536.) South Ramoth

[Ramath Of The South OF THE SOUTH] Sow

[Swine] Sower, Sowing

The operation of a sowing with the hand is one of so simple a character as to need little description. The Egyptian paintings furnish many illustrations of the mode in which it was conducted. The sower held the vessel or basket containing the seed in his left hand, while with his right he scattered the seed broadcast. The "drawing out" of the seed is noticed, as the most characteristic action of the sower, in (Psalms 126:6) (Authorized Version "precious") and (Amos 9:13) In wet soils the seed was trodden in by the feet of animals. (Isaiah 32:20) The sowing season began in October and continued to the end of February, wheat being put in before, and barley after, the beginning of January. The Mosaic law prohibited the sowing of mixed seed. (Leviticus 19:19; 22:9) Spain

1 Macc. 8:3; (Romans 15:24,28) The local designation, Tarshish, representing the Tartessus of the Greeks, probably prevailed until the fame of the Roman wars in that country reached the East, when it was superseded by its classical name. The mere intention of St. Paul to visit Spain (whether he really did visit it is a disputed question.—ED.) implies two interesting facts, viz., the establishment of a Christian community in that country, and that this was done by Hellenistic Jews resident there. The early introduction of Christianity into that country is attested by Irenaeus and Tertullian. Sparrow

(Heb. tzippor, from a root signifying to "chirp" or "twitter," which appears to be a phonetic representation of the call-note of any passerine (sparrow-like) bird). This Hebrew word occurs upwards of forty times in the Old Testament. In all passages except two it is rendered by the Authorized Version indifferently "bird" or "fowl." and denotes any small bird, both of the sparrow-like species and such as the starling, chaffinch, greenfinch, linnet, goldfinch, corn-bunting, pipits, blackbird, song-thrush, etc. In (Psalms 84:3) and Psal 102:7 It is rendered "sparrow." The Greek stauthion (Authorized Version "sparrow") occurs twice in the New Testament, (Matthew 10:29; Luke 12:6,7) (The birds above mentioned are found in great numbers in Palestine and are of very little value, selling for the merest trifle and are thus strikingly used by our Saviour, (Matthew 10:20) as an illustration of our Father's care for his children.—ED.) The blue thrush (Petrocossyphus cyaneus) is probably the bird to which the psalmist alludes in (Proverbs 102:7) as "the sparrow that sitteth alone upon the house-top." It is a solitary bird, eschewing the society of its own species, and rarely more than a pair are seen together. The English tree-sparrow (Passer montanus, Linn.) is also very common, and may be seen in numbers on Mount Olivet and also about the sacred enclosure of the mosque of Omar. This is perhaps the exact species referred to in (Psalms 84:3) Dr. Thompson, in speaking of the great numbers of the house-sparrows and field-sparrows in troublesome and impertinent generation, and nestle just where you do not want them. They stop your stove— and

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water-pipes with their rubbish, build in the windows and under the beams of the roof, and would stuff your hat full of stubble in half a day if they found it hanging in a place to suit them." Sparta

a celebrated city of Greece, between whose inhabitants and the Jews a relationship was believed to subsist. Between the two nations a correspondence ensued.—Whitney. The act of the Jews and Spartans, 2 Macc. 5:9 is an ethnological error, which it is difficult to trace to its origin. Spear

[Arms, Armor] Spearmen

(Acts 23:23) These were probably troops so lightly armed as to be able to keep pace on the march with mounted soldiers. Spice, Spices

Heb. basam, besem or bosem . In (Song of Solomon 5:1) "I have gathered my myrrh with my spice," the word points apparently to some definite substance. In the other places, with the exception •

perhaps of (Song of Solomon 1:13; 6:2) the words refer more generally to sweet aromatic odors, the principal of which was that of the balsam or balm of Gilead; the tree which yields this substance is now generally admitted to be the Balsam-odendron opobalsamum . The balm of Gilead tree grows in some parts of Arabia and Africa, and is seldom more than fifteen feet high, with straggling branches and scanty foliage. The balsam is chiefly obtained from incisions in the bark, but is procured also from the green and ripe berries. •Necoth . (Genesis 37:25; 43:11) The most probable explanation is that which refers the word to the Arabic naku'at i.e. "the gum obtained from the tragacanth" (Astragalus). •Sammim, a general term to denote those aromatic substances which were used in the preparation of the anointing oil, the incense offerings, etc. The spices mentioned as being used by Nicodemus for the preparation of our Lord's body, (John 19:39,40) are "myrrh and aloes," by which latter word must be understood not the aloes of medicine, but the highly-scented wood of the Aquilaria agallochum . Spider

The Hebrew word 'accabish in (Job 8:24; Isaiah 59:5) is correctly rendered "spider." Put semamith is wrongly translated "spider" in (Proverbs 30:28) it refers probably to some kind of lizard. (But "there are many species of spider in Palestine: some which spin webs, like the common garden spider; some which dig subterranean cells and make doors in them, like the well-known trap-door spider of southern Europe; and some which have no web, but chase their prey upon the ground, like the hunting-and the wolf-spider."—Wood's Bible Animals.) Spikenard

(Heb. nerd) is mentioned twice in the Old Testament viz. in (Song of Solomon 1:12; 4:13,14) The ointment with which our Lord was anointed as he sat at meat in Simon's house at Bethany consisted of this precious substance, the costliness of which may be inferred from the indignant surprise manifested by some of the witnesses of the transaction. See (Mark 14:3-5; John 12:3,5) (Spikenard,from which the ointment was made, was an aromatic herb of the valerian family (Nardostachys jatamansi). It was imported from an early age from Arabia India and the Far East. The costliness of Mary's offering (300 pence=) may beat be seen from the fact that a penny (denarius, 15 to 17 cents) was in those days the day-wages of a laborer. (Matthew 20:2) In our day this would equal at least or .-ED.)

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Spinning

The notices of spinning in the Bible are confined to (Exodus 35:25,26; Proverbs 31:19; Matthew 6:28) The latter passage implies (according to the Authorized Version) the use of the same instruments which have been in vogue for hand-spinning down to the present day, viz. the distaff and spindle. The distaff however, appears to have been dispensed with, and the term so rendered means the spindle itself, while that rendered "spindle" represents the whirl of the spindle, a button of circular rim which was affixed to it, and gave steadiness to its circular motion. The "whirl" of the Syrian women was made of amber in the time of Pliny. The spindle was held perpendicularly in the one hand, while the other was employed in drawing out the thread. Spinning was the business of women, both among the Jews and for the most part among the Egyptians. Sponge

a soft, porous marine substance. Sponges were for a long time supposed to be plants, but are now considered by the best naturalists to belong to the animal kingdom. Sponge is mentioned only in the New Testament. (Matthew 27:48; Mark 15:36; John 19:29) The commercial value of the sponge was known from very early times; and although there appears to be no notice of it in the Old Testament, yet it is probable that it was used by the ancient Hebrews, who could readily have obtained it good from the Mediterranean, where it was principally found. Spouse

[Marriage] Stachys

a Christian at Rome, saluted by St. Paul in the Epistle to the Romans. (Romans 16:9) (A.D. 56.) Stacte

(Heb. nataf) the name of one of the sweet spices which composed the holy incense. See (Exodus 30:34)—the only passage of Scripture in which the word occurs. Some identify the nataf with the gum of the storer tree (Styraz officinale), but all that is positively known is that it signifies an odorous distillation from some plant. Standards

The Assyrian standards were emblematic of their religion, and were therefore the more valuable as instruments for leading and guiding men in the army. The forms were imitations of animals (1), emblems of deities (2), and symbols of power and wisdom (3). Many of them were crude, but others were highly artistic and of great cost. The Egyptian standards were designed in the same idea as those of the Romans, exhibiting some sacred emblem (5,6,8), or a god in the form of an animal (3,4), a group of victory (7), or the king's name or his portrait as (1), of lower, and (2) of upper, Egypt, or an emblematic sign, as No. 9. Star Of The Wise Men

[Magi] Stater

[Money] Steel

In all cases were the word "steel" occurs in the Authorized Version the true rendering of the Hebrew is "copper." Whether the ancient Hebrews were acquainted with steel is not perfectly certain. It has been inferred from a passage in (Jeremiah 15:12) that the "iron from the north" there spoken of denoted a superior kind of metal, hardened in an unusual manner, like the steel obtained

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from the Chalybes of the Pontus, the iron smiths of the ancient world. The hardening of iron for cutting instruments was practiced in Pontus, Lydia and Laconia. There is, however, a word in hebrew, paldah, which occurs only in (Nahum 2:3) (4) and is there rendered "torches," but which most probably denotes steel or hardened iron, and refers to the flashing scythes of the Assyrian chariots. Steel appears to have been known to the Egyptians. The steel weapons in the tomb of Rameses III., says Wilkinson, are painted blue, the bronze red. Stephanas

a Christian convert of Corinth whose household Paul baptized as the "first-fruits of Achaia." (1 Corinthians 1:16; 16:15) (A.D. 53.) Stephen

the first Christian martyr, was the chief of the seven (commonly called Deacons) appointed to rectify the complaints in the early Church of Jerusalem, made by the Hellenistic against the hebrew Christians. His Greek name indicates his own Hellenistic origin. His importance is stamped on the narrative by a reiteration of emphatic, almost superlative, phrases: "full of faith and of the Holy Ghost," (Acts 6:5) "full of grace and power," ibid. (Acts 6:8) irresistible "spirit and wisdom," ibid (Acts 6:10) "full of the Holy Ghost." (Acts 7:55) He shot far ahead of his six companions, and far above his particular office. First, he arrests attention by the "great wonders and miracles that he did." Then begins a series of disputations with the Hellenistic Jews of north Africa, Alexandria and Asia Minor, his companions in race and birthplace. The subject of these disputations is not expressly mentioned; but from what follows it is obvious that he struck into a new vein of teaching, which evidently caused his martyrdom. Down to this time the apostles and the early Christian community had clung in their worship, not merely to the holy land and the holy city but to the holy place of the temple. This local worship, with the Jewish customs belonging to it, Stephen denounced. So we must infer from the accusations brought against him confirmed as they are by the tenor of his defence. He was arrested at the instigation of the Hellenistic Jews, and brought before the Sanhedrin. His speech in his defence, and his execution by stoning outside the gates of Jerusalem, are related at length in Acts 7. The frame work in which his defence is cast is a summary of the history of the Jewish Church. In the facts which he selects from his history he is guided by two principles. The first is the endeavor to prove that, even in the previous Jewish history, the presence and favor of God had not been confined to the holy land or the temple of Jerusalem. The second principle of selection is based on the at tempt to show that there was a tendency from the earliest times toward the same ungrateful and narrow spirit that had appeared in this last stage of their political existence. It would seem that, just at the close of his argument, Stephen saw a change in the aspect of his judges, as if for the first time they had caught the drift of his meaning. He broke off from his calm address, and tumult suddenly upon them in an impassioned attack, which shows that he saw what was in store for him. As he spoke they showed by their faces that their hearts "were being sawn asunder," and they kept gnashing their set teeth against him; but still, though with difficultly, restraining themselves. He, in this last crisis of his fate, turned his face upward to the; open sky, and as he gazed the vault of heaven seemed to him to part asunder; and the divine Glory appeared through the rending of the earthly veil—the divine Presence, seated on a throne, and on the right hand the human form of Jesus. Stephen spoke as if to himself, describing the glorious vision; and in so doing, alone of all the speakers and writers in the New Testament except, only Christ himself, uses the expressive phrase "the Son of man." As his judges heard the words, they would listen no longer. They broke into, a loud yell; they clapped their hands to their ears; they flew as with one

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impulse upon him, and dragged him out of the city to the place of execution. Those who took the lead in the execution were the persons wile had taken upon themselves the responsibility of denouncing him. (17:7) comp. John 8:7 In this instance they were the witnesses who had reported or misreported the words of Stephen. They, according to the custom, stripped themselves; and one, of the prominent leaders in the transaction was deputed by custom to signify his assent to the act by taking the clothes into his custody and standing over them while the bloody work went on. The person was officiated on this occasion was a young man from Tarsus, the future apostle of the Gentiles. [Paul] As the first volley of stones burst upon him, Stephen called upon the Master whose human form he had just seen in the heavens, and repeated almost the words with which he himself had given up his life on the cross, "O Lord Jesus receive my spirit." Another crash of stones brought him on his knees. One loud, piercing cry, answering to the shriek or yell with which his enemies had flown upon him, escaped his dying lips. Again clinging to the spirit of his Master's words, he cried "Lord, lay not this sin to their charge" and instantly sank upon the ground, and, in the touching language of the narrator who then uses for the first time the words afterward applied to the departure of all Christians, but here the more remarkable from the bloody scenes in the midst of which death took place, fell asleep . His mangled body was buried by the class of Hellenists and proselytes to which he belonged. The importance of Stephen's career may be briefly summed up under three heads: •He was the first great Christian ecclesiastic, "the Archdeacon," as he is called in the eastern Church. •He is the first martyr—the protomartyr. To him the name "martyr" is first applied. (Acts 23:20) •He is the forerunner of St. Paul. He was the anticipator, as, had he lived, he would have been the propagator, of the new phase of Christianity of which St. Paul became the main support. Stocks

(An instrument of punishment, consisting of two beams, the upper one being movable, with two small openings between them, large enough for the ankles of the prisoner.—ED.) The term "stocks" is applied in the Authorized Version to two different articles one of which answers rather to our pillory, inasmuch as the body was placed in a bent position, by the confinement of the neck and arms as well as the legs while the other answers to our "stocks," the feet alone being confined in it. The prophet Jeremiah was confined in the first sort, (Jeremiah 20:2) which appears to have been a common mode of punishment in his day, (Jeremiah 29:26) as the prisons contained a chamber for the special purpose, termed "the house of the pillory." (2 Chronicles 16:10) (Authorized Version "prison-house"). The stocks, properly so called, are noticed in (Job 13:27; 33:11; Acts 16:24) The term used in (Proverbs 7:22) (Authorized Version "stocks") more properly means a fetter. Stoics

The Stoics and Epicureans, who are mentioned together in (Acts 17:18) represent the two opposite schools of practical philosophy which survived the fall of higher speculation in Greece. The Stoic school was founded by Zeno of Citium (cir. B.C. 280) and derived its name from the painted "portico" (stoa) at Athens in which he taught. Zeno was followed by Cleanthes (cir. B.C. 260); Cleanthes by Chrysippus (cir. B.C. 240) who was regarded as the founder of the Stoic system. "They regarded God and the world as power and its manifestation matter being a passive ground in which dwells the divine energy. Their ethics were a protest against moral indifference, and to live in harmony with nature, conformably with reason and the demands of universal good, and in the utmost indifference to pleasure, pain and all external good or evil, was their fundamental maxim."—American Cyclopaedia. The ethical system of the Stoics has been commonly supposed

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to have a close connection with Christian morality; but the morality of stoicism is essentially based on pride, that of Christianity on humility; the one upholds individual independence, the other absolute faith in another; the one looks for consolation in the issue of fate, the other in Providence; the one is limited by Periods of cosmical ruin, the other is consummated in a personal resurrection. (Acts 17:18) But in spite of the fundamental error of stoicism, which lies in a supreme egotism, the teaching of this school gave a wide currency to the noble doctrines of the fatherhood of God, the common bonds of mankind, the sovereignty of the soul. Among their most prominent representatives were Zeno and Antipater of Tarsus, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. Stomacher

The Hebrew word so translated, (Isaiah 3:24) describes some article of female attire, the character of which is a mere matter of conjecture. Stones

Besides the ordinary uses to which stones were applied, we may mention that large stones were set up to commemorate any remarkable event. (Genesis 28:18; 35:14; 31:45; Joshua 4:9; 1 Samuel 7:12) Such stones were occasionally consecrated By anointing. (Genesis 28:18) Heaps of stones were piled up on various occasions, as in token of a treaty, (Genesis 31:47) or over the grave of some notorious offender. (Joshua 7:26; 8:29; 2 Samuel 18:17) The "white stone" noticed in (Revelation 2:17) has been variously regarded as referring to the pebble of acquittal used in the Greek courts; to the lot cast in elections in Greece to both these combined; to the stones in the high priest's breastplate; to the tickets presented to the victor at the public games; or, lastly, to the custom of writing on stones. The notice in (Zechariah 12:3) of the "burdensome stone" is referred by Jerome to the custom of lifting stones as an exercise of strength, comp. Ecclus. 6:21; but it may equally well be explained of a large corner-stone as a symbol of strength. (Isaiah 28:16) Stones are used metaphorically to denote hardness or insensibility, (1 Samuel 25:37; Ezekiel 11:19; 36:26) as well as firmness or strength. (Genesis 49:24) The members of the Church are called "living stones," as contributing to rear that living temple in which Christ, himself "a living stone," is the chief or head of the corner. (Ephesians 2:20-22; 1 Peter 2:4-8) Stones, Precious

Precious stones are frequently alluded to in Scriptures; they were known and very highly valued in the earliest times. The Tyrians traded in precious stones supplied by Syria. (Ezekiel 27:16) The merchants of Sheba and Raamah in south Arabia, and doubtless India and Ceylon supplied the markets of Tyre with various precious stones. The art of engraving on precious stones was known from the very earliest times. (Genesis 38:18) The twelve atones of the breastplate were engraved each one with the name of one of the tribes. (Exodus 28:17-21) It is an undecided question whether the diamond was known to the early nations of antiquity. The Authorized Version gives if as the rendering of the Heb. yahalom, but it is probable that the jasper is intended. Precious stones are used in Scripture in a figurative sense, to signify value, beauty durability, etc., in those objects with which they are compared. See (Song of Solomon 5:14; Isaiah 54:11,12; Lamentations 4:7; Revelation 4:3; 21:10,21) Stoning

[Punishments] Stork

(Heb. chasidah), a large bird of passage of the heron family. The of the largest and most conspicuous of land birds, standing nearly four feet high, the jet black of its wings and its bright

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red beak and legs contrasting finely with the pure white of its plumage. (Zechariah 6:9) In the neighborhood of man it devours readily all kinds of offal and garbage. For this reason, doubtless it is placed in the list of unclean birds by the Mosaic law. (Leviticus 11:19; 14:18) The range of the white stork extends over the whole of Europe, except the British isles, where it is now a rare visitant, and over northern Africa and Asia as far at least as Burmah. The black stork (Ciconia nigra, Linn.), though less abundant in places, is scarcely less widely distributed, but has a more easterly range than its congener. Both species are very numerous in Palestine. While the black stork is never found about buildings, but prefers marshy places in forests and breeds on the tops of the loftiest trees, the white stork attaches itself to man and for the service which it renders in the destruction of reptiles and the removal of offal has been repaid from the earliest times by protection and reverence, The derivation of chasidah (from chesed, "kindness") points to the paternal and filial attachment of which the stork seems to have been a type among the Hebrews no less than the Greeks and Romans. It was believed that the young repaid the care of their parents by attaching themselves to them for life, and tending them in old age. That the parental attachment of the stork is very strong has been proved on many occasions, Few migratory birds are more punctual to the time of their reappearance than the white stork. The stork has no note, and the only sound it emits is that caused by the sudden snapping of its long mandibles. Strain At

(So translated in the Authorized Version, but in the Revised Version "strain out," (Matthew 23:24) which is undoubtedly the true reading.—ED.) Stranger

A "stranger," in the technical sense of the term, may be defined to be a person of foreign, i.e. non-Israelitish, extraction resident within the limits of the promised land. He was distinct from the proper "foreigner," inasmuch as the latter still belonged to another country, and would only visit Palestine as a traveller: he was still more distinct from the "nations," or non-Israelite peoples. The term may be compared with our expression "naturalized foreigner." The terms applied to the "stranger" have special reference to the fact of residing in the land. The existence of such a class of persons among the Israelites is easily accounted for the "mixed multitude" that accompanied them out of Egypt, (Exodus 12:38) formed one element the Canaanitish Population,which was never wholly extirpated from their native soil, formed another and a still more important one captives taken in war formed a third; fugitives, hired servants, merchants, etc., formed a fourth. With the exception of the Moabites and Ammonites, (23:3) all nations were admissible to the rights of citizenship under certain conditions. The stranger appears to have been eligible to all civil offices, that of king excepted. (17:15) In regard to religion, it was absolutely necessary that the stranger should not infringe any of the fundamental laws of the Israelitish state. If he were a bondman, he was obliged to submit to circumcision, (Exodus 12:44) if he were independent, it was optional with him but if he remained uncircumcised, he was prohibited from partaking of the Passover, (Exodus 12:48) and could not be regarded as a full citizen. Liberty was also given to an uncircumcised stranger in regard to the use of prohibited food. Assuming, however, that the stranger was circumcised, no distinction existed in regard to legal rights ha between the stranger and the Israelite; to the Israelite is enjoined to treat him as a brother. (Leviticus 19:34; 10:19) It also appears that the "stranger" formed the class whence the hirelings were drawn; the terms being coupled together in (Exodus 12:45; Leviticus 22:10; 25:6,40) The liberal spirit of the Mosaic regulations respecting

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strangers presents a strong contrast to the rigid exclusiveness of the Jews at the commencement of the Christian era. The growth of this spirit dates from the time of the Babylonish captivity. Straw

Both wheat and barley straw were used by the ancient Hebrews chiefly as fodder for the horses cattle and camels. (Genesis 24:25; 1 Kings 4:28; Isaiah 11:7; 66:25) There is no intimation that straw was used for litter. It was employed by the Egyptians for making bricks, (Exodus 5:7,16) being chopped up and mixed with the clay to make them more compact and to prevent their cracking. [See Brick] The ancient Egyptians reaped their corn close to the ear, and afterward cut the straw close to the ground and laid it by. This was the straw that Pharaoh refused to give to the Israelites who were therefore compelled to gather "stubble" instead—a matter of considerable difficulty, seeing that the straw itself had been cut off near to the ground. Stream Of Egypt

occurs once in the Old Testament— (Isaiah 27:12) [RIVER OF EGYPT] RIVER OF EGYPT - 3664 Street

The streets of a modern Oriental town present a great contrast to those with which we are familiar, being generally narrow, tortuous and gloomy, even in the best towns. Their character is mainly fixed by the climate and the style of architecture, the narrowness being due to the extreme heat, and the gloominess to the circumstance of the windows looking for the most part into the inner court. The street called "Straight," in Damascus, (Acts 9:11) was an exception to the rule of narrowness: it was a noble thoroughfare, one hundred feet wide. divided in the Roman age by colonnades into three avenues, the central one for foot passengers, the side passages for vehicles and horsemen going in different directions. The shops and warehouses were probably collected together into bazaars in ancient as in modern times. (Jeremiah 37:21) That streets occasionally had names appears from (Jeremiah 37:21; Acts 9:11) That they were generally unpaved may be inferred from the notices of the pavement laid by Herod the Great at Antioch, and by Herod Agrippa II. at Jerusalem. Hence pavement forms one of the peculiar features of the ideal Jerusalem. Tob. 13:17; (Revelation 21:21) Each street and bazaar in a modern town is locked up at night; the same custom appears to have prevailed in ancient times. (Song of Solomon 3:3) Stripes

[Punishments] Suah

(sweeping), son of Zophah an Asherite. (1 Chronicles 7:36) (B.C. about 1020.) Succoth

(booths). •An ancient town, first heard of in the account of the homeward journey of Jacob from Padan-aram. (Genesis 35:17) The name is derived from the fact of Jacob's having there put up "booths" (succoth) for his cattle as well as a house for himself. From the itinerary of Jacob's return it seems that Succoth lay between Peniel, near the ford of the torrent Jabbok and Shechem. Comp. (Genesis 32:30) and Genesis33:18 In accordance with this is the mention of Succoth in the narrative of Gideon's pursuit of Zebah and Zalluunna. (Judges 5:5-17) It would appear from this passage that it lay east of the Jordan, which is corroborated by the fact that it was allotted to the tribe of Gad. (Joshua 13:27) Succoth is named once again after this—in (1 Kings 7:46; 2 Chronicles 4:17)—as

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marking the spot at which the brass founderies were placed for casting the metal work of the temple. (Dr. Merrill identifies it with a site called Tell Darala, one mile north of the Jabbok.—ED.) •The first camping-place of the Israelites when they left Egypt. (Exodus 12:37; 13:20; Numbers 33:5,6) This place was apparently reached at the close of the first days march. Rameses, the starting-place, was probably near the western end of the Wadi-t-Tumeylat . The distance traversed in each day's journey was about fifteen miles. Succothbenoth

Occurs only in (2 Kings 17:30) It has generally been supposed that this term is pure Hebrew, and signifies the tents of daughters; which some explain as "the booths in which the daughters of the Babylonians prostituted themselves in honor of their idol," others as "small tabernacles in which were contained images of female deities." Sir H. Rawlinson thinks that Succoth-benoth represents the Chaldaean goddess Zerbanit, the wife of Merodach, who was especially worshipped at Babylon. Suchathites

one of the families of scribes at Jabez. (1 Chronicles 2:55) Sukkiim

(booth-dwellers), a nation mentioned (2 Chronicles 12:3) with the Lubim and Cushim as supplying part of the army which came with Shishak out of Egypt when he invaded Judah. The Sukkiim may correspond to some one of the shepherd or wandering races mentioned on the Egyptian monuments. Sun

In the history of "greater light," of the creation the sun is described as "greater light," in contradistinction to the moon, the "lesser light," in conjunction with which it was to serve "for signs and for seasons, and for days, and for years," while its special office was "to rule the day." (Genesis 1:14-16) The "signs" referred to were probably such extraordinary phenomena as eclipses, which were regarded as conveying premonitions of coming events. (Jeremiah 10:2; Matthew 24:29) with Luke 21:25 The joint influence assigned to the sun and moon in deciding the "seasons," both for agricultural operations and for religious festivals, and also in regulating the length and subdivisions of the years "correctly describes the combination of the lunar and solar year which prevailed at all events subsequent to the Mosaic period. Sunrise and sunset are the only defined points of time in the absence of artificial contrivances for telling the hour of the day. Between these two points the Jews recognized three periods, viz., when the sun became hot, about 9 A.M. (1 Samuel 11:9; Nehemiah 7:3) the double light, or noon. (Genesis 43:16; 2 Samuel 4:5) and "the cool of the day," shortly before sunset. (Genesis 3:8) The sun also served to fix the quarters of the hemisphere, east, west north and south, which were represented respectively by the rising sun, the setting sun, (Isaiah 45:6; Psalms 50:1) the dark quarter, (Genesis 13:14; Joel 2:20) and the brilliant quarter, (33:23; Job 37:17; Ezekiel 40:24) or otherwise by their position relative to a person facing the rising sun—before, behind, on the left hand and on the right hand. (Job 23:8,9) The worship of the sun, as the most prominent and powerful agent in the kingdom of nature, was widely diffused throughout the countries adjacent to Palestine. The Arabians appear to have paid direct worship to it without the intervention of any statue or symbol, (Job 31:26,27) and this simple style of worship was probably familiar to the ancestors of the Jews in Chaldaea and Mesopotamia. The Hebrews must have been well acquainted with the idolatrous worship of the sun during the captivity in Egypt, both from the contiguity of On, the chief seat of the worship of the sun, as implied in the name itself (On being the equivalent of the Hebrew Bethshemesh, "house of the sun") (Jeremiah 43:13)

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and also from the connection between Joseph and Potipherah("he who belongs to Ela") the priest of On, (Genesis 41:45) After their removal to Canaan, the Hebrews came in contact with various forms of idolatry which originated in the worship of the sun; such as the Baal of the Phoenicians, the Molech or Milcom of the Ammonites, and the Hadad of the Syrians. The importance attached to the worship of the sun by the Jewish kings may be inferred from the fact that the horses sacred to the sun were stalled within the precincts of the temple. (2 Kings 23:11) In the metaphorical language of Scripture the sun is emblematic of the law of God, (Psalms 19:7) of the cheering presence of God, (Psalms 84:11) of the person of the Saviour, (John 1:9; Malachi 4:2) and of the glory and purity of heavenly beings. (Revelation 1:16; 10:1) Suretyship

In the entire absence of commerce the law laid down no rules on the subject of suretyship; but it is evident that in the time of Solomon commercial dealings had become so multiplied that suretyship in the commercial sense was common. (Proverbs 6:1; 11:15; 17:18; 20:16; 22:26; 27:13) But in older times the notion of one man becoming a surety for a service to be discharged by another was in full force. See (Genesis 44:32) The surety of course became liable for his client's debts in case of his failure. Susa

(Esther 11:3; 16:18) [Shushan, Or Susa]. Susanchites

is found once only—in (Ezra 4:9) There can be no doubt that it designates either the inhabitants of the city Susa or those of the country—Susis or Susiana. Perhaps the former explanation is preferable. Susanna

(a lily). •The heroine of the story of the Judgment of Daniel. (The book which gives an account of her life is also called "The history of Susanna," and is one of the apocryphal books of the Bible.) •One of the women who ministered to the Lord. (Luke 8:3) (A.D. 28-30.) Susi

the father of Gaddi the Manassite spy. (Numbers 13:11) Swallow

Heb. deror in (Psalms 84:3; Proverbs 26:2) Heb. 'agur in (Isaiah 38:14; Jeremiah 8:7) but "crane" is more probably the true signification of 'agur [Crane]). The rendering of the Authorized Version for deror seems correct. The characters ascribed in the passages where the names occur are strictly applicable to the swallow, viz., its swiftness of flight, its meeting in the buildings of the temple, its mournful, garrulous note, and its regular migrations, shared indeed in common with several others. Many species of swallow occur in Palestine. All those common in England are found. Swan

(Heb. tinshemeth), thus rendered by the Authorized Version in (Leviticus 11:18; 14:16) where it occurs in the list of unclean birds Rut either of the renderings "porphyrio" (purple water-hen) and "ibis" is more probable. Neither of these birds occurs elsewhere in the catalogue; both would be familiar to residents in Egypt, and the original seems to point to some water-fowl. The purple water-hen is allied to our corn-crake and water-hen, and is the largest and most beautiful of the

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family Rallidae . It frequents marshes and the sedge by the banks of rivers in all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean and is abundant in lower Egypt. Swearing

[Oath] Sweat, Bloody

One of the physical phenomena attending our Lord's agony in the garden of Gethsemane is described by St. Luke, (Luke 22:44) "His sweat was as it were great drops (lit. clots) of blood falling down to the ground." Of this malady, known in medical science by the term diapedesis, there have been examples recorded in both ancient and modern times. The cause assigned is generally violent mental emotion. Swine

(Heb. chazir). The flesh of swine was forbidden as food by the Levitical law, (Leviticus 11:7; 14:8) the abhorrence which the Jews as a nation had of it may be inferred from (Isaiah 65:4) and 2 Macc 6:18,19. No other reason for the command to abstain from swine's flesh is given in the law of Moses beyond the general one which forbade any of the mammalia as food which did not literally fulfill the terms of the definition of a clean animal" viz,, that it was to be a cloven-footed ruminant. It is, however, probable that dietetical considerations may have influenced Moses in his prohibition of swine's flesh: it is generally believed that its use in hot countries is liable to induce cutaneous disorders; hence in a people liable to leprosy the necessity for the observance of a strict rule. Although the Jews did not breed swine during the greater period of their existence as a nation there can be little doubt that the heathen nations of Palestine used the flesh as food. At the time of our Lord's ministry it would appear that the Jews occasionally violated the law of Moses with regard to swine's flesh. Whether "the herd of swine" into which the devils were allowed to enter, (Matthew 8:32; Mark 5:13) were the property of the Jewish or of the Gentile inhabitants of Gadara does not appear from the sacred narrative. The wild boar of the wood, (Psalms 80:13) is the common Sus scrofa which is frequently met with in the woody parts of Palestine, especially in Mount Tabor. Sword

[Arms, Armor] Sycamine Tree

is mentioned only in (Luke 17:6) There is no reason to doubt that the sycamine is distinct from the sycamore of the same evangelist. (Luke 19:4) The sycamine is the mulberry tree (Morus). Both black and white mulberry trees are common in Syria and Palestine. Sycamore

(Heb. shikmah). Although it may be admitted that the sycamine is properly, and in (Luke 17:6) the mulberry, and the sycamore the mulberry, or sycamore-fig (Ficus sycomorus), yet the latter is the tree generally referred to in the Old Testament and called by the Septuagint sycamine, as (1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; Psalms 78:47; Amos 7:14) The Sycamore or fig-mulberry, is in Egypt and Palestine a tree of great importance and very extensive use. It attains the size of a walnut tree has wide-spreading branches and affords a delightful shade. On this account it is frequently planted by the waysides. Its leaves are heart-shaped, downy on the under side, and fragrant. The Fruit grows directly from the trunk itself on little sprigs, and in clusters like the grape. To make It eatable, each fruit, three or four days before gathering, must, it is said, be punctured with a sharp instrument or the finger-nail. This was the original employment of the prophet Amos, as he says. (Amos 7:14) So great was the value of these trees that David appointed for them in his kingdom a

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special overseer, as he did for the olives (1 Chronicles 27:28) and it is mentioned as one of the heaviest of Egypt's calamities that her sycamore were destroyed by hailstones. Sychar

a place named only in (John 4:5) Sychar was either a name applied to the town of Shechem or it was an independent place. The first of these alternatives is now almost universally accepted. [Shechem] Sychem

the Greek form of the word Shechem. It occurs in (Acts 7:16) only. [Shechem] Syene

properly Seventh a town of Egypt, on the frontier of Cush or Ethiopia, (Ezekiel 29:10; 30:6) represented by the present Aruan or Es-Suan. Symeon

(The Jewish form of the name Simon, used in the Revised Version of (Acts 15:14) and referring to Simon Peter.-ED.) Synagogue

History .—The word synagogue (sunagoge), which means a "congregation," is used in the New Testament to signify a recognized place of worship. A knowledge of the history and worship of •

the synagogues is of great importance, since they are the characteristic institution of the later phase of Judaism. They appear to have arisen during the exile, in the abeyance of the temple-worship, and to have received their full development on the return of the Jews from captivity. The whole history of Ezra presupposes the habit of solemn, probably of periodic, meetings. (Ezra 8:15; Nehemiah 8:2; 9:1; Zechariah 7:5) After the Maccabaean struggle for independence, we find almost every town or village had its one or more synagogues. Where the Jews were not in sufficient numbers to be able to erect and fill a building, there was the proseucha (proseuche), or place of prayer, sometimes open, sometimes covered in, commonly by a running stream or on the seashore, in which devout Jews and proselytes met to worship, and perhaps to read. (Acts 16:13) Juven. Sat. iii. 296. It is hardly possible to overestimate the influence of the system thus developed. To it we may ascribe the tenacity with which, after the Maccabaean struggle, the Jews adhered to the religion of their fathers, and never again relapsed into idolatry. •Structure .—The size of a synagogue varied with the population. Its position was, however, determinate. If stood, if possible, on the highest ground, in or near the city to which it belonged. And its direction too was fixed. Jerusalem was the Kibleh of Jewish devotion. The synagogue was so constructed that the worshippers, as they entered and as they prayed, looked toward it. The building was commonly erected at the cost of the district. Sometimes it was built by a rich Jew, or even, as in (Luke 7:5) by a friend or proselyte. In the internal arrangement of the synagogue we trace an obvious analogy to the type of the tabernacle. At the upper or Jerusalem end stood the ark, the chest which, like the older and more sacred ark contained the Book of the Law. It gave to that end the name and character of a sanctuary. This part of the synagogue was naturally the place of honor. Here were the "chief seats," for which Pharisees and scribes strove so eagerly, (Matthew 23:6) and to which the wealthy and honored worshipper was invited. (James 2:2,3) Here too, in front of the ark, still reproducing the type of the tabernacle, was the eight-branched lamp, lighted only on the greater festivals. Besides this there was one lamp kept burning perpetually. More toward the middle of the building was a raised platform, on which several persons could stand at once, and in the middle of this rose a pulpit, in which the reader stood to read the lesson

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or sat down to teach. The congregation were divided, men on one side, women on the other a low partition, five or six feet high, running between them. The arrangements of modern synagogues, for many centuries, have made the separation more complete by placing the women in low side-galleries, screened off a lattice-work. •Officers.—In smaller towns there was often but one rabbi. Where a fuller organization was possible, there was a college of elders, (Luke 7:3) presided over by one who was "the chief of the synagogue." (Luke 8:41,49; 13:14; Acts 18:8,17) The most prominent functionary in a large synagogue was known as the sheliach (= legatus), the officiating minister who acted as the delegate of the congregation and was therefore the chief reader of prayers, etc.., in their name. The chazzan or "minister" of the synagogue, (Luke 4:20) had duties of a lower kind, resembling those of the Christian deacon or sub-deacon. He was to open the doors and to prepare the building for service. Besides these there were ten men attached to every synagogue, known as the ballanim, (—otiosi). They were supposed to be men of leisure not obliged to labor for their livelihood able therefore to attend the week-day as well as the Sabbath services. The legatus of the synagogues appears in the angel, (Revelation 1:20; 2:1) perhaps also in the apostle of the Christian Church. •Worship .—It will be enough, in this place, to notice in what way the ritual, no less than the organization, was connected with the facts of the New Testament history, and with the life and order of the Christian Church. From the synagogue came the use of fixed forms of prayer. To that the first disciples had been accustomed from their youth. They had asked their Master to give them a distinctive one, and he had complied with their request, (Luke 11:1) as the Baptist had done before for his disciples, as every rabbi did for his. "Moses" was "read in the synagogues every Sabbath day," (Acts 15:21) the whole law being read consecutively, so as to be completed, according to one cycle, in three years. The writings of the prophets were read as second lessons in a corresponding order. They were followed by the derash (Acts 13:15) the exposition, the sermon of the synagogue. The conformity extends also to the times of prayer. In the hours of service this was obviously the case. The third, sixth and ninth hours were in the times of the New Testament, (Acts 3:1; 10:3,9) and had been probably for some time before, (Psalms 55:17; Daniel 6:10) the fixed times of devotion. The same hours, it is well known, were recognized in the Church of the second century, probably in that of the first also. The solemn days of the synagogue were the second, the fifth and the seventh, the last or Sabbath being the conclusion of the whole. The transfer of the sanctity of the Sabbath to the Lord's day involved a corresponding change in the order of the week, and the first, the fourth the sixth became to the Christian society what the other days had been to the Jewish. From the synagogue, lastly, come many less conspicuous practices, which meet us in the liturgical life of the first three centuries: Ablution, entire or partial, before entering the place of meeting, (John 13:1-15; Hebrews 10:22) standing, and not kneeling, as the attitude of prayer, (Luke 18:11) the arms stretched out; the face turned toward the Kibleh of the east; the responsive amen of the congregation to the prayers and benedictions of the elders. (1 Corinthians 14:16) •Judicial functions .—The language of the New Testament shows that the officers of the synagogue exercised in certain cases a judicial power. If is not quite so easy, however to define the nature of the tribunal and the precise limits of its jurisdiction. In two of the passages referred to— (Matthew 10:17; Mark 13:9)—they are carefully distinguished from the councils. It seems probable that the council was the larger tribunal of twenty-three, which sat in every city, and that under the term synagogue we are to understand a smaller court, probably that of the ten judges mentioned in the

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Talmud. Here also we trace the outline of a Christian institution. The Church, either by itself or by appointed delegates, was to act as a court of arbitration in all disputes its members. The elders of the church were not however to descend to the trivial disputes of daily life. For the elders, as for those of the synagogue, were reserved the graver offences against religion and morals. Synagogue, The Great

On the return of the Jews from Babylon, a great council was appointed according to rabbinic tradition, to reorganize the religious life of the people. It consisted of 120 members, and these were known as the men of the Great Synagogue, the successors of the prophets, themselves, in their turn, succeeded by scribes prominent, individually, as teachers. Ezra was recognized as president, Their aim was to restore again the crown, or glory, of Israel. To this end they collected all the sacred writings of the former ages and their own and so completed the canon of the Old Testament. They instituted the feast of Purim organized the ritual of the synagogue, and gave their sanction to the Shemoneh Esreh, the eighteen solemn benedictions in it. Much of this is evidently uncertain. The absence of any historical mention of such a body, not only in the Old Testament and the Apocrypha, but in Josephus, Philo, etc., has had some critics to reject the whole statement as a rabbinic invention. The narrative of (Nehemiah 8:13) clearly implies the existence of a body of men acting as councillors under the presidency of Ezra; and these may have been an assembly of delegates from all provincial synagogues-a synod of the national Church. Syntyche

(with fate), a female member of the church of Philippi. (Philemon 4:2,3) (A.D.57). Syracuse

the celebrated city on the eastern coast of Sicily. "The city in its splendor was the largest and richest that the Greeks possessed in any part of the world, being 22 miles in circumference." St. Paul arrived thither in an Alexandrian ship from Melita, on his voyage to Rome. (Acts 28:12) The site of Syracuse rendered it a convenient place for the African corn-ships to touch at, for the harbor was an excellent one, and the fountain Arethusa in the island furnished an unfailing supply of excellent water. Syria

is the term used throughout our version for the Hebrew Aram, as well as for the Greek Zupia . Most probably Syria is for Tsyria, the country about Tsur or Tyre which was the first of the Syrian towns known to the Greeks. It is difficult to fix the limits of Syria. The limits of the Hebrew Aram and its subdivisions are spoken of under Aram. Syria proper was bounded by Amanus and Taurus on the north by the Euphrates and the Arabian desert on the east, by Palestine on the south, by the Mediterranean near the mouth of the Orontes, and then by Phoenicia on the west. This tract is about 300 miles long from north to south, and from 50 to 150 miles broad. It contains an area of about 30,000 square miles. General physical features .—The general character of the tract is mountainous, as the Hebrew name Aram (from a roof signifying "height") sufficiently implies. The most fertile and valuable tract of Syria is the long valley intervening between Libanus and Anti-Libanus. Of the various mountain ranges of Syria, Lebanon possesses the greatest interest. It extends from the mouth of the Litany to Arka, a distance of nearly 100 miles. Anti-Libanus, as the name implies, stands lover against Lebanon, running in the same direction, i.e. nearly north and south, and extending the same length. [Lebanon] The principal rivers of Syria are the Litany and the Orontes. The Litany springs from a small lake situated in the middle of the Coele-Syrian valley, about six miles to the southwest of Baalbek. It enters the sea about five miles north of Tyre. The source of the Orontes

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is but about 15 miles from that of the Litany. Its modern name is the Nahr-el-Asi, or "rebel stream," an appellation given to it on account of its violence and impetuosity in many parts of its course. The chief towns of Syria may be thus arranged, as nearly as possible in the order of their importance: 1, Antioch; 2, Damascus; 3, Apamea; 4, Seleucia; 5, Tadmor or Palmyra; 6, Laodicea; 7, Epiphania (Hamath); 8, Samosata; 9, Hierapolis (Mabug); 10, Chalybon; 11, Emesa; 12, Heliopolis; 13, Laodicea ad Libanum; 14, Cyrrhus; 15, Chalcis; 16, Poseideum; 17, Heraclea; 18, Gindarus; 19, Zeugma; 20, Thapsacus. Of these, Samosata, Zeugma and Thapsacus are on the Euphrates; Seleucia, Laodicea, Poseideum and Heraclea, on the seashore, Antioch, Apamea, Epiphania and Emesa (Hems), on the Orontes; Heliopolis and Laodicea ad Libanum, in Coele-Syria; Hierapolis, Chalybon, Cyrrhus, Chalcis and Gindarns, in the northern highlands; Damascus on the skirts, and Palmyra in the centre, of the eastern desert. History.—The first occupants of Syria appear to have been of Hamitic descent—Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites, etc. After a while the first comers, who were still to a great extent nomads, received a Semitic infusion, while most Probably came to them from the southeast. The only Syrian town whose existence we find distinctly marked at this time is Damascus, (Genesis 14:15; 15:2) which appears to have been already a place of some importance. Next to Damascus must be placed Hamath. (Numbers 13:21; 34:8) Syria at this time, and for many centuries afterward, seems to have been broken up among a number of petty kingdoms. The Jews first come into hostile contact with the Syrians, under that name, in the time of David. (Genesis 15:18; 2 Samuel 8:3,4,13) When, a few years later, the Ammonites determined on engaging in a war with David, and applied to the Syrians for aid, Zolah, together with Beth-rehob sent them 20,000 footmen, and two other Syrian kingdoms furnished 13,000. (2 Samuel 10:6) This army being completely defeated by Joab, Hadadezer obtained aid from Mesopotamia, ibid. ver. 16, and tried the chance of a third battle, which likewise went against him, and produced the general submission of Syria to the Jewish monarch. The submission thus begun continued under the reign of Solomon. (1 Kings 4:21) The only part of Syria which Solomon lost seems to have been Damascus, where an independent kingdom was set up by Rezon, a native of Zobah. (1 Kings 11:23-25) On the separation of the two kingdoms, soon after the accession of Rehoboam, the remainder of Syria no doubt shook off the yoke. Damascus now became decidedly the leading state, Hamath being second to it, and the northern Hittites, whose capital was Carchemish, near Bambuk, third. [Damascus] Syria became attached to the great Assyrian empire, from which it passed to the Babylonians, and from them to the Persians, In B.C. 333 it submitted to Alexander without a struggle. Upon the death of Alexander, Syria became, for the first time the head of a great kingdom. On the division of the provinces among his generals, B.C. 321, Seleucus Nicator received Mesopotamia and Syria. The city of Antioch was begun in B.C. 300, and, being finished in a few years, was made the capital of Seleucus' kingdom. The country grew rich with the wealth which now flowed into it on all sides. Syria was added to the Roman empire by Pompey, B.C. 64, and as it holds an important place, not only in the Old Testament but in the New, some account of its condition under the Romans must be given. While the country generally was formed into a Roman province, under governors who were at first proprietors or quaestors, then procounsuls, and finally legates, there were exempted from the direct rule of the governor in the first place, a number of "free cities" which retained the administration of their own affairs, subject to a tribute levied according to the Roman principles of taxation; secondly, a number of tracts, which were assigned to petty princes, commonly natives, to be ruled at their pleasure, subject to the same obligations with the free cities as to taxation. After the formal division of the provinces between Augustus and the senate, Syria, being from its exposed situation

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among the province principis, were ruled by legates, who were of consular rank (consulares) and bore severally the full title of "Legatus Augusti pro praetore." Judea occupied a peculiar position; a special procurator was therefore appointed to rule it, who was subordinate to the governor of Syria, but within his own province had the power of a legatus. Syria continued without serious disturbance from the expulsion of the Parthians, B.C. 38, to the breaking out of the Jewish war, A.D. 66. in A.D. 44-47 it was the scene of a severe famine. A little earlier, Christianity had begun to spread into it, partly by means of those who "were scattered" at the time of Stephen's persecution, (Acts 11:19) partly by the exertions of St. Paul. (Galatians 1:21) The Syrian Church soon grew to be one of the most flourishing (Acts 13:1; 15:23,35,41) etc. (Syria remained under Roman and Byzantine rule till A.D. 634, when it was overrun by the Mohammedans; after which it was for many years the scene of fierce contests, and was finally subjugated by the Turks, A.D. 1517, under whose rule it still remains.—ED.) Syrophoenician

occurs only in (Mark 7:26) The word denoted perhaps a mixed race, half Phoenicians and half Syrians; (or the Phoenicians in this region may have been called Syro-phoenicians because they belonged to the Roman province of Syria, and were thus distinguished from the Phoenicians who lived in Africa, or the Carthaginians.—ED.) Syrtis, The

(Acts 27:17) in the Revised Version in place of "quicksands" in the Authorized Version. It was the well-known Syrtis Major, the terror of all Mediterranean sailors. "It is a dangerous shallow on the coast of Africa, between Tripoli and Barca, southwest of the island of Crete." The other Syrtis Syrtis Minor, was too far west to be feared by Paul's fellow voyagers.—ED.

Taanach

(sandy), an ancient Canaanitish city whose king is enumerated among the thirty-one kings conquered by Joshua. (Joshua 12:21) It came into the half tribe of Manasseh, (Joshua 17:11; 21:25; 1 Chronicles 7:29) and was bestowed on the Kohathite Levites. (Joshua 21:25) Taanach is almost always named in company with Megiddo, and they were evidently the chief towns of that fine rich district which forms the western portion of the great plain of Esdraelon. (1 Kings 4:12) It is still called Ta'annuk, and) stands about four miles southeast of Lejjun and 13 miles southwest of Nazareth. Taanathshiloh

(approach to Shiloh), a place named once only— (Joshua 16:6)—as one of the landmarks of the boundary of Ephraim. Perhaps Taanath was the ancient Canaanite name of the place, and Shiloh the Hebrew name. Tabbaoth

(rings). The children of Tabbaoth were a family of Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:43; Nehemiah 7:46) (B.C. before 536.) Tabbath

(celebrated), a place mentioned only in (Judges 7:25) in describing the flight of the Midianite host after Gideon's night attack; (probably the present Tubukhat-Fahil, a very striking natural bank

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600 feet high, with a long horizontal top, embanked against the western face of the mountains east of the Jordan, and descending with a steep front to the river.—Robinson, Bib. Res.) Tabeal

(God is good). The son of Tabeal was apparently an Ephraimite in the army of Pekah the son of Remaliah, or a Syrian in the army of Rezin, when they went up to besiege Jerusalem in the reign of Ahaz. (Isaiah 7:6) The Aramaic form of the name favors the latter supposition. (B.C. before 738.) Tabelel

(God is good), an officer of the Persian government in Samaria in the reign of Artaxerxes. (Ezra 4:7) His name appears to indicate that he was a Syrian. (B.C.519.) Taberah

the name of a place in the wilderness of Paran. (Numbers 11:3; 9:22) It has not been identified. Tabering

an obsolete English word used in the Authorized Version of (Nahum 2:7) The Hebrew word connects itself with toph, "a timbrel." The Authorized Version reproduces the original idea. The "tabour" or "tabor" was a musical instrument of the drum type which with the pipe formed the band of a country village. To "tabour," accordingly, is to beat with loud strokes, as men beat upon such an instrument. Tabernacle

The tabernacle was the tent of Jehovah, called by the same name as the tents of the people in the midst of which it stood. It was also called the sanctuary and the tabernacle of the congregation. The first ordinance given to Moses, after the proclamation of the outline of the law from Sinai, related to the ordering of the tabernacle, its furniture and its service as the type which was to be followed when the people came to their own home and "found a place" for the abode of God. During the forty days of Moses' first retirement with God in Sinai, an exact pattern of the whole was shown him, and all was made according to it. (Exodus 25:9,40; 26:30; 39:32,42,43; Numbers 8:4; Acts 7:44; Hebrews 8:5) The description of this plan is preceded by an account of the freewill offerings which the children of Israel were to be asked to make for its execution. I. THE TABERNACLE ITSELF.— •Its name .—It was first called a tent or dwelling, (Exodus 25:8) because Jehovah as it were, abode there. It was often called tent or tabernacle from its external appearance. •Its materials .—The materials were— (a) Metals: gold, silver and brass. (b) Textile fabrics: blue, purple, scarlet and fine (white) linen, for the production of which Egypt was celebrated; also a fabric of goat's hair, the produce of their own flocks. (c) Skins: of the ram, dyed red, and of the badger. (d) Wood the shittim wood, the timber of the wild acacia of the desert itself, the tree of the "burning bush." (e) Oil, spices and incense for anointing the priests and burning in the tabernacle. (f) Gems: onyx stones and the precious stones for the breastplate of the high priest. The people gave jewels, and plates of gold and silver and brass; wood, skins, hair and linen; the women wove; the rulers offered precious stones, oil, spices and incense; and the artists soon had more than they needed. (Exodus 25:1-8; 35:4-29; 36:5-7) The superintendence of the work was intrusted to Bezaleel, of the tribe of Judah, and to Aholiab, of the tribe of Dan, who were skilled in "all manner of workmanship." (Exodus 31:2,6; 35:30,34) •Its structure.—The tabernacle was to comprise three main parts,—the tabernacle more strictly so called, its tent and its covering. (Exodus 35:11; 39:33,34; 40:19,34; Numbers 3:25) etc. These

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parts are very clearly distinguished in the Hebrew, but they are confounded in many places of the English version. The tabernacle itself was to consist of curtains of fine linen woven with colored figures of cherubim, and a structure of boards which was to contain the holy place and the most holy place; the tent was to be a true tent of goat's hair cloth, to contain and shelter the tabernacle; the covering was to be of red ram-skins and seal-skins, (Exodus 25:5) and was spread over the goat's hair tent as an additional protection against the weather. It was an oblong rectangular structure, 30 cubits in length by 10 in width (45 feet by 15), and 10 in height; the interior being divided into two chambers, the first or outer, of 20 cubits in length, the inner, of 10 cubits, and consequently and exact cube. The former was the holy place, or first tabernacle, (Hebrews 9:2) containing the golden candlestick on one side, the table of shew-bread opposite, and between them in the centre the altar of incense. The latter was the most holy place, or the holy of holies, containing the ark, surmounted by the cherubim, with the two tables inside. The two sides and the farther or west end were enclosed by boards of shittim wood overlaid with gold, twenty on the north and twenty on the south side, six on the west side, and the corner-boards doubled. They stood upright, edge to edge, their lower ends being made with tenons, which dropped into sockets of silver, and the corner-boards being coupled at the tope with rings. They were furnished with golden rings, through which passed bars of shittim wood, overlaid with gold, five to each side, and the middle bar passing from end to end, so as to brace the whole together. Four successive coverings of curtains looped together were placed over the open top and fell down over the sides. The first or inmost was a splendid fabric of linen, embroidered with figures of cherubim in blue, purple and scarlet, and looped together by golden fastenings. It seems probable that the ends of this set of curtains hung down within the tabernacle, forming a sumptuous tapestry. The second was a covering of goats' hair; the third, of ram-skins dyed red and the outermost, of badger-skins (so called in our version; but the Hebrew word probably signifies seal-skins). It has been commonly supposed that these coverings were thrown over the wall, as a pall is thrown over a coffin; but this would have allowed every drop of rain that fell on the tabernacle to fall through; for, however tightly the curtains might be stretched, the water could never run over the edge, and the sheep-skins would only make the matter worse as when wetted their weight would depress the centre and probably tear any curtain that could be made. There can be no reasonable doubt that the tent had a ridge, as all tents have had from the days of Moses down to the present time. The front of the sanctuary was closed by a hanging of fine linen, embroidered in blue, purple and scarlet, and supported by golden hooks on five pillars of shittim wood overlaid with gold and standing in brass sockets; and the covering of goat's hair was so made as to fall down over this when required. A more sumptuous curtain of the same kind, embroidered with cherubim hung on four such pillars, with silver sockets, divided the holy from the most holy place. It was called the veil, (Sometimes the second veil, either is reference to the first, at the entrance of the holy place, or as below the vail of the second sanctuary;) (Hebrews 9:3) as it hid from the eyes of all but the high priest the inmost sanctuary, where Jehovah dwells on his mercy-seat, between the cherubim above the ark. Hence "to enter within the veil" is to have the closest access to God. It was only passed by the high priest once a year, on the Day of Atonement in token of the mediation of Christ, who with his own blood hath entered for us within the veil which separates God's own abode from earth. (Hebrews 6:19) In the temple, the solemn barrier was at length profaned by a Roman conqueror, to warn the Jews that the privileges they had forfeited were "ready to vanish away;" and the veil was at last rent by the hand of God himself, at the same moment that the body of Christ was rent upon the cross, to

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indicate that the entrance into the holiest of all is now laid open to all believers by the blood of Jesus, by a new and living way which he hath consecrated for us, through the veil, that is to say, his flesh." (Hebrews 10:19,20) The holy place was only entered by the priests daily, to offer incense at the time of morning and evening prayer, and to renew the lights on the golden candlesticks; and on the sabbath, to remove the old shew-bread, and to place the new upon the table. II. THE SACRED FURNITURE AND INSTRUMENTS OF THE TABERNACLE.—These are described in separate articles, and therefore it is only necessary to give a list of them here. •In the outer court. The altar of burnt offering and the brazen laver . [Altar; Laver] •In the holy place. The furniture of the court was connected with sacrifice; that of the sanctuary itself with the deeper mysteries of mediation and access to God. The first sanctuary contained three objects: the altar of incense in the centre, so as to be directly in front of the ark of the covenant (1 Kings 6:22) the table of shew-bread on its right or north side, and the golden candlestick on the left or south side. These objects were all considered as being placed before the presence of Jehovah, who dwelt in the holiest of all, though with the veil between. [Altar; SHEW-BREAD; Candlestick, Candlestick] •In the holy of holies, within the veil, and shrouded in darkness, there was but one object, the ark of the covenant, containing the two tables of stone, inscribed with the Ten Commandments. [Ark Of The Covenant] III. THE Court OF THE TABERNACLE, in which the tabernacle itself stood, was an oblong space, 100 cubits by 50 (i.e. 150 feet by 75), having its longer axis east and west, with its front to the east. It was surrounded by canvas screens—in the East called kannauts— 5 cubits in height, and supported by pillars of brass 5 cubits apart, to which the curtains were attached by hooks and filets of silver. (Exodus 27:9) etc. This enclosure was broken only on the east side by the entrance, which was 20 cubits wide, and closed by curtains of fine twined linen wrought with needlework and of the most gorgeous colors. In the outer or east half of the court was placed the altar of burnt offering, and between it and the tabernacle itself; the laver at which the priests washed their hands and feet on entering the temple. The tabernacle itself was placed toward the west end of this enclosure. IV. HISTORY.—"The tabernacle, as the place in which Jehovah dwelt, was pitched in the centre of the camp, (Numbers 2:2) as the tent of a leader always is in the East; for Jehovah was the Captain of Israel. (Joshua 5:14,15) During the marches of Israel, the tabernacle was still in the centre. (Numbers 2:1) ... The tribes camped and marched around it in the order of a hollow square. In certain great emergencies led the march. (Joshua 3:11-16) Upon the tabernacle, abode always the cloud, dark by day and fiery red by night, (Exodus 10:38) giving the signal for the march, (Exodus 40:36,37; Numbers 9:17) and the halt. (Numbers 9:15-23) It was always the special meeting-place of Jehovah and his people. (Numbers 11:24,25; 12:4; 14:10; 16:19,42; 20:6; 27:2; 31:14) "During the conquest of Canaan the tabernacle at first moved from place to place, (Joshua 4:19; 8:30-35; 9:6; 10:15) was finally located at Shiloh. (Joshua 9:27; 18:1) Here it remained during the time of the judges, till it was captured by the Philistines, who carried off the sacred ark of the covenant. (1 Samuel 4:22) From this time forward the glory of the tabernacle was gone. When the ark was recovered, it was removed to Jerusalem, and placed in a new tabernacle (2 Samuel 6:17; 1 Chronicles 15:1) but the old structure still had its hold on the veneration of the community and the old altar still received their offerings. (1 Chronicles 16:39; 21:29) It was not till the temple was built, and a fitting house thus prepared for the Lord, that the ancient tabernacle was allowed to perish and be forgotten. V. SIGNIFICANCE.—(The great underlying principles of true religion are the same in all ages and for all men; because man's nature and needs are the

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same, and the same God ever rules over all. But different ages require different methods of teaching these truths, and can understand them in different degrees. As we are taught in the Epistle to the Hebrews, the tabernacle was part of a great system of teaching by object-lessons, and of training the world to understand and receive the great truths which were to be revealed in Jesus Christ and thus really to save the Jews from sin By Jesus dimly seen in the future, as we clearly see him in the past. (1) The tabernacle and its services enabled the Jews, who had no visible representation of God, to feel the reality of God and of religion. (2) The tabernacle as the most beautiful and costly object in the nation and ever in the centre of the camp, set forth the truth that religion was the central fact and the most important, in a persons life. (3) The pillar of cloud and of fire was the best possible symbol of the living God,—a cloud, bright, glowing like the sunset clouds, glorious, beautiful, mysterious, self-poised, heavenly; fire, immaterial, the source of life and light and comfort and cheer, but yet unapproachable, terrible, a consuming fire to the wicked. (4) The altar of burnt offering, standing before the tabernacle was a perpetual symbol of the atonement,—the greatness of sin, deserving death, hard to be removed and yet forgiveness possible, and offered freely, but only through blood. The offerings, as brought by the people were a type of consecration to God, of conversion and new life, through the atonement. (6) This altar stood outside of the tabernacle, and must be passed before we come to the tabernacle itself; a type of the true religious life. Before the tabernacle was also the laver, signifying the same thing that baptism does with us, the cleansing of the heart and life. (8) Having entered the holy place, we find the three great means and helps to true living,—the candlestick, the light of God's truth; the shew-bread, teaching that the soul must have its spiritual food and live in communion with God; and the altar of incense, the symbol of prayer. The holy of holies, beyond, taught that there was progress in the religious life, and that progress was toward God, and toward the perfect keeping of the law till it was as natural to obey the law as it is to breathe; and thus the holy of holies was the type of heaven.—ED.) Tabernacles, The Feast Of

(Exodus 23:16) ("the feast of ingathering"), the third of the three great festivals: of the Hebrews, which lasted from the 15th till the 22d of Tisri. •The following are the principal passages in the Pentateuch which refer to it: (Exodus 23:16; Leviticus 23:34-36; 39-43; Numbers 29:12-38; 16:13-15; 31:10-13) In Nehe 8, there is an account of the observance of the feast by Ezra. •The time of the festival fell in the autumn, when the whole of the chief fruits of the ground, the corn, the wine and the oil, were gathered in. (Exodus 23:16; Leviticus 23:39; 15:13-15) Its duration was strictly only seven days, (16:13; Ezekiel 45:25) but it was followed by a day of holy convocation, distinguished by sacrifices of its own, which was sometimes spoken of as an eighth day. (Leviticus 23:36; Nehemiah 8:18) During the seven days the Israelites were commanded to dwell in booths or huts formed of the boughs of trees. The boughs were of the olive palm, pine, myrtle and other trees with thick foliage. (Nehemiah 8:15,16) According to rabbinical tradition each Israelite used to tie the branches into a bunch, to be carried in his hand to which the name lulab was given. The burnt offerings of the Feast of Tabernacles were by far more numerous than those of any other festival. There were offered on each day two rams, fourteen lambs and a kid for a sin offering. But what was most peculiar was the arrangement of the sacrifices of bullocks, in amounting to seventy. (Numbers 29:12-38) The eighth day was a day of holy convocation of peculiar solemnity. On the morning of this day the Hebrews left their huts and dismantled them, and took up their abode again in their houses. The special offerings of the day were a bullock a

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ram, seven lambs and a goat for a sin offering. (Numbers 29:36,38) When the Feast of Tabernacles fell on a sabbatical year, portions of the law were read each day in public, to men, women, children and strangers. (31:10-13) We find Ezra reading the law during the festival "day by day, from the first day to the last day." (Nehemiah 8:18) •There are two particulars in the observance of the Feast of Tabernacles which appear to be referred to in the New Testament, but are not noticed in the Old. These were the ceremony of pouring out some water of the pool of Siloam and the display of some great lights in the court of the women. We are told that each Israelite, in holiday attire, having made up his lulab, before he broke his fast repaired to the temple with the lulab in one hand and the citron in the other, at the time of the ordinary morning sacrifice. The parts of the victim were laid upon the altar. One of the priests fetched some water in a golden ewer from the pool of Siloam, which he brought into the court through the water-gate. As he entered the trumpets sounded, and he ascended the slope of the altar. At the top of this were fixed two silver basins with small openings at the bottom. Wine was poured into that on the eastern side, and the water into that on the western side, whence it was conducted by pipes into the Cedron. In the evening, both men and women assembled in the court of the women, expressly to hold a rejoicing for the drawing of the water of Siloam. At the same time there were set up in the court two lofty stands, each supporting four great lamps. These were lighted on each night of the festival. It appears to be generally admitted that the words of our Saviour, (John 7:37,38)—"If a man thirst, let him come unto me drink. He that believeth on me as the Scripture hath said, out of his belly shall flow rivers of living water"—were suggested by the pouring out of the water of Siloam. But it is very doubtful what is meant by "the last day, that great day of the feast." It would seem that either the last day of the feast itself, that is, the seventh, or the last day of the religious observances of the series of annual festivals, the eighth, must be intended. The eighth day may be meant and then the reference of our Lord would be to an ordinary and well-known observance of the feast, though it was not, at the very time, going on. We must resort to some such explanation if we adopt the notion that our Lord's words (John 8:12)—"I am the light of the world "— refer to the great lamps of the festival. •Though all the Hebrew annual festivals were seasons of rejoicing, the Feast of Tabernacles was, in this respect, distinguished above them all. The huts and the lulabs must have made a gay end striking spectacle over the city by day, and the lamps, the flambeaux, the music and the joyous gatherings in the court of the temple must have given a still more festive character to the night. The main purposes of the Feast of Tabernacles are plainly set forth in (Exodus 23:16) and Levi 23:43 It was to be at once a thanksgiving for the harvest and a commemoration of the time when the Israelites dwelt in tents during their passage through the wilderness. In one of its meanings it stands in connection with the Passover. as the Feast of Abib, and with Pentecost, as the feast of harvest; in its other meaning, it is related to the Passover as the great yearly memorial of the deliverance from the destroyer and from the tyranny of Egypt. But naturally connected with this exultation in their regained freedom was the rejoicing in the more perfect fulfillment of God's promise in the settlement of his people in the holy blessing. But the culminating point of was the establishment of the central spot of the national worship in the temple at Jerusalem. Hence it was evidently fitting that the Feast of Tabernacles should be kept with an unwonted degree of observance at the dedication of Solomon's temple, (1 Kings 8:2,65) Joseph. Ant. viii. 4,5; again, after the rebuilding of the temple by Ezra, (Nehemiah 8:13-18) and a third time by Judas Maccabaeus when he had driven out the Syrians and restored the temple to the worship of Jehovah. 2 Macc. 10:5-8.

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Tabitha

(gazelle), also called Dorcas by St. Luke, a female disciple of Joppa, "full of good works" among which that of making clothes for the poor is specifically mentioned. While St. Peter was at the neighboring town of Lydda, Tabitha, died; upon which the disciples at Joppa sent an urgent message to the apostle begging him to come to them without delay. Upon his arrival Peter found the deceased already prepared for burial, and laid out in an upper chamber, where she was surrounded by the recipients and the tokens of her charity after the example of our Saviour in the house of Jairus, (Matthew 9:25; Mark 5:40) "Peter put them all forth," prayed for the divine assistance, and then commanded Tabitha to arise. Comp. (Mark 5:41; Luke 8:51) She opened-her eyes and sat up, and then, assisted by the apostle, rose from her couch. This great miracle, as we are further told produced an extraordinary effect in Joppa, and was the occasion of many conversions there. (Acts 9:38-42) The name "Tabitha" is an Aramaic word signifying a "female gazelle." St. Luke gives "Dorcas" as the Greek equivalent of the name. Tabor

is mentioned in the lists of 1Chr 6 as a city of the Merarite Levites, in the tribe of Zebulun. ver. (1 Chronicles 6:77) The list of the towns of Zebulun. Josh 19 contains the name of Chisloth-tabor. ver. (Joshua 19:12) It is, therefore, possible, either that Chisloth-tabor is abbreviated into Tabor by the chronicler, or that by the time these later lists were compiled the Merarites had established themselves on the sacred mountain, and that Tabor is Mount Tabor.

(a mound), or Mount Tabor, one of the most interesting and remarkable of the single mountains in Palestine. It rises abruptly from the northeastern arm of the plain of Esdraelon, and stands entirely insulated, except on the west where a narrow ridge connects it with the hills of Nazareth. It presents to the eye, as seen from a distance, a beautiful appearance, being symmetrical in its proportions and rounded off like a hemisphere or the segment of a circle, yet varying somewhat as viewed from different directions. The body of the mountain consists of the peculiar limestone of the country. It is now called Jebel-et-Tur . It lies about six or eight miles almost due east from Nazareth. The ascent is usually made on the west side, near the little village of Deburieh—probably the ancient Daberath, (Joshua 19:12)—though it can be made with entire ease in other places. It requires three quarters of an hour or an hour to reach the to the top. The top of Tabor consists of an irregular platform, embracing a circuit of half an hour's walk, and commanding wide views of the subjacent plain from end to end. Tabor does not occur in the New Testament, but makes a prominent figure in the Old. The book of Joshua (Joshua 19:22) mentions it as the boundary between Issachar and Zebulun, See ver. 12. Barak, at the command of Deborah, assembled his forces on Tabor, and descended thence, with "ten thousand men after him," into the plain, and conquered Sisera on the banks of the Kishon. (Judges 4:6-15) The brothers of Gideon each of whom "resembled the children of a king," were murdered here by Zebah and Zalmunna. (Judges 8:18,19) There are at present the ruins of a fortress round all the summit of Tabor. The Latin Christians have now an altar here at which their priests from Nazareth perform an annual mass. The Greeks also have a chapel, where, on certain festivals they assemble for the celebration of religious rites. The idea that our Saviour was transfigured on Tabor prevailed extensively among the early Christians, and still reappears often in popular religious works. It is impossible, however, to acquiesce in the correctness of this opinion. It can be proved from the Old Testament and from later history that a fortress or town existed on Tabor from very early times down to B.C. 53 or 50; and as Josephus says that he strengthened the fortifications there about A.D. 60, it is morally certain that Tabor must have been

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inhabited during the intervening Period that is in the days of Christ. Tabor, therefore, could not have been the Mount of Transfiguration [see Hermon]; for when it is said that Jesus took his disciples "up into a high mountain apart, and was transfigured before them (Matthew 17:1,2) we must understand that he brought them to the summit of the mountain, where they were alone by themselves. Tabor, The Plain Of

This is an incorrect translation, and should be THE Oak OF Tabor, Tabor. It is mentioned in (1 Samuel 10:3) only, as one of the points in the homeward journey of Saul after his anointing by Samuel. Tabret

[Timbrel, Tabret] Tabrimon

(properly Tabrimmon, i.e. good is Rimmon, the Syrian god) the father of Ben-hadad I., king of Syria in the reign of Asa. (1 Kings 15:18) (B.C. before 928.) Tache

The word thus rendered occurs only in the description of the structure of the tabernacle and its fittings, (Exodus 26:6,11,33; 35:11; 36:13; 39:33) and appears to indicate the small hooks by which a curtain is suspended to the rings from which it hangs, or connected vertically, as in the case of the veil of the holy of holies, with the loops of another curtain. Tachmonite, The

"The Tachmonite that sat in the seat," chief among David's captains, (2 Samuel 23:8) Isa in 1Chr 11:11 Called "Jashobeam an Hachmonite," or, as the margin gives it, "son of Hachmoni." Kennicott has shown that the words translated "he that sat in the seat" are a corruption of Jashobeam, and that "the Tachmonite" is a corruption of the "son of Hachmoni," which was the family or local name of Jashobeam. Therefore he concludes "Jashobeam the Hachmonite" to have been the true reading. Tadmor

(city of palms), called "Tadmor in the wilderness," is the same as the city known to the Greeks and Romans under the name of Palmyra. It lay between the Euphrates and Hamath, to the southeast of that city, in a fertile tract or oasis of the desert. Being situated at a convenient distance from both the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf, it had great advantages for caravan traffic. It was built by Solomon after his conquest of Hamath-zobah. (1 Kings 9:18; 2 Chronicles 8:4) As the city is-nowhere else mentioned in the Bible, it would be out of place to enter into a detailed history of it. In the second century A.D. it seems to have been beautified by the emperor Hadrian. In the beginning of the third century—211-217 A.D.— it became a Roman colony under Caracalla. Subsequently, in the reign of Gallienus, the Roman senate invested Odenathus, a senator of Palmyra, with the regal dignity, on account of his services in defeating Sapor, king of Persia. On the assassination of Odenathus, his wife, Zenobia, seems to have conceived the design of erecting Palmyra into an independent monarchy; and in prosecution of this object, she for a while successfully resisted the Roman arms. She was at length defeated and taken captive by the emperor Aurelian, A.D. 273, who left a Roman garrison in Palmyra. This garrison was massacred in a revolt; and Aurelian punished the city by the execution not only of those who were taken in arms, but likewise of common peasants, of old men, women and children. From this blow Palmyra never recovered, though there are proofs of its having continued to be inhabited until the downfall of the Roman

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empire. The grandeur and magnificence of the ruins of Palmyra cannot be exceeded, and attest its former greatness. Among the most remarkable are the Tombs, the Temple of the Sun and the Street of Columns. Tahan

(camp), a descendant of Ephraim. (Numbers 26:35) In (1 Chronicles 7:25) he appears as the son of Telah. Tahanites, The

(Numbers 26:35) [Tahan] Tahath

the name of a desert station of the Israelites between Makheloth and Tarah. (Numbers 33:26) The site has not been identified.

(station). •A Kohathite Levite, ancestor of Samuel and Heman. (1 Chronicles 6:22,37; 9:22) (B.C. about 1415.) •According to the present text, son of Bered, and great-grandson of Ephraim. (1 Chronicles 7:20) Burrington, however, identifies Tahath with Tahan, the son of Ephraim. •Grandson of the preceding, as the text now stands. (1 Chronicles 7:20) But Burrington considers him as a son of Ephraim. Tahpanhes, Tehaphnehes, Tahapanes

a city of Egypt, mentioned in the time of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The name is evidently Egyptian, and closely resembles that of the Egyptian queen Tahpenes. It was evidently a town of lower Egypt, near or on the eastern border. When Johanan and the other captains went into Egypt "they came to Tahpanhes." (Jeremiah 43:7) The Jews in Jeremiah's time remained here. (Jeremiah 44:1) It was an important town, being twice mentioned by the latter prophet with Noph or Memphis. (Jeremiah 2:16; 46:14) Here stood a house of Pharaoh-hophra before which Jeremiah hid great stones. (Jeremiah 43:8-10) Tahpenes

an Egyptian queen, was wife of the Pharaoh who received Hadad the Edomite, and who gave him her sister in marriage. (1 Kings 11:18-20) (B.C. about 1000.) Tahrea

(cunning), son of Micah and grandson of Mephibosheth. (1 Chronicles 9:41) (B.C. after 1057.) Tahtimhodshi

(lowlands of Hodshi?), The land of, one of the places visited by Joab during his census of the land of Israel. It occurs between Gilead and Dan-jaan. (2 Samuel 24:6) The name has puzzled all the interpreters, (Kitto says it was probably a section of the upper valley of the Jordan, now called Ard el-Huleh, lying deep down at the western base of Hermon.—ED.) Talent

[Weights And Measures AND Measures] Talitha Cumi

two Syriac words, (Mark 5:41) signifying damsel, arise . Talmai

(bold). •One of the three sons of "the Anak" who were slain by the men of Judah. (Numbers 13:22; Joshua 15:14; Judges 1:10) (B.C. 1450.)

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•Son of Ammihud king of Geshur. (2 Samuel 3:3; 13:37; 1 Chronicles 3:2) He was probably a petty chieftain, dependent on David. (B.C. 1040.) Talmon

(oppressor), the head of a family of door-keepers in the temple, "the porters for the camps of the sons: of Levi." (1 Chronicles 9:17; Nehemiah 11:19) (B.C. 1013.) Some of his descendants returned with Zerubbabel, (Ezra 2:43; Nehemiah 7:45) and were employed in their hereditary office in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra. (Nehemiah 12:25) Talmud

(i.e. doctrine, from the Hebrew word "to learn") is a large collection of writings, containing a full account of the civil and religious laws of the Jews. It was a fundamental principle of the Pharisees, common to them with all orthodox modern Jews, that by the side of the written law, regarded as a summary of the principles and general laws of the Hebrew people, there was an oral law, to complete and to explain the written law. It was an article of faith that in the Pentateuch there was no precept, and no regulation, ceremonial, doctrinal or legal, of which God had not given to Moses all explanations necessary for their application, with the order to transmit them by word of mouth. The classical subject is the following in the Mishna on this wing: "Moses received the (oral) law from Sinai, and delivered it to Joshua, and Joshua to the elders, and the elders to the prophets and the prophets to the men of the Great Synagogue." This oral law, with the numerous commentaries upon it, forms the Talmud. It consists of two parts, the Mishna and Gemara. •The MISHNA, or "second law," which contains a compendium of the whole ritual law, was reduced to writing in its present form by Rabbi Jehuda the Holy, a Jew of great wealth and influence, who flourished in the second century of the Christian era. Viewed as a whole, the precepts in the Mishna treated men like children, formalizing and defining the minutest particulars of ritual observances. The expressions of "bondage," or "weak and beggarly elements," and of "burdens too heavy for men to bear," faithfully represent the impression produced by their multiplicity. The Mishna is very concisely written, and requires notes. •This circumstance led to the commentaries called GEMARA (i.e. supplement, completion), which form the second part of the Talmud, and which are very commonly meant when the word "Talmud" is used by itself. There are two Gemaras; one of Jerusalem, in which there is said to be no passage which can be proved to be later than the first half of the fourth century; and the other of Babylon, completed about 500 A.D. The latter is the more important and by far the longer. Tamah

(laughter). The children of Tamah or Thamah, (Ezra 2:53) were among the Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 7:55) Tamar

(palm tree). •The wife successively of the two sons of Judah, Er and Onan. (Genesis 38:8-30) (B.C. about 1718.) Her importance in the sacred narrative depends on the great anxiety to keep up the lineage of Judah. It seemed as if the family were on the point of extinction. Er and Onan had successively perished suddenly. Judah's wife, Bathshuah, died; and there only remained a child, Shelah, whom Judah was unwilling to trust to the dangerous union as it appeared, with Tamar, lest he should meet with the same fate as his brothers. Accordingly she resorted to the desperate expedient of entrapping the father himself into the union which he feared for his son. The fruits of this intercourse were twins, Pharez and Zarah, and through Pharez the sacred line was continued.

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•Daughter of David and Maachah the Geshurite princess, and thus sister of Absalom. (2 Samuel 13:1-32; 1 Chronicles 3:9) (B.C. 1033.) She and her brother were alike remarkable for their extraordinary beauty. This fatal beauty inspired a frantic passion in her half-brother Amnon, the oldest son of David by Ahinoam. In her touching remonstrance two points are remarkable: first, the expression of the infamy of such a crime "in Israel" implying the loftier standard of morals that prevailed, as compared with other countries at that time; and second, the belief that even this standard might be overborne lawfully by royal authority—"Speak to the king, for he will not withhold me from thee." The intense hatred of Amnon succeeding to his brutal passion, and the indignation of Tamar at his barbarous insult, even surpassing her indignation at his shameful outrage, are pathetically and graphically told. •Daughter of Absalom, (2 Samuel 14:7) became, by her marriage with Uriah of Gibeah, the mother of Maachah, the future queen of Judah or wife of Abijah. (1 Kings 15:2) (B.C. 1023.) •A spot on the southeastern frontier of Judah, named in (Ezekiel 47:19; 48:28) only, evidently called from a palm tree. If not Hazazon-tamar, the old name of Engedi, it may he a place called Thamar in the Onamasticon [HAZAZON-TAMAR), a day's journey south of Hebron. Tammuz

(sprout of life), properly "the Tammuz," the article indicating that at some time or other the word had been regarded as an appellative. (Ezekiel 8:14) Jerome identifies Tammuz with Adonis, of Grecian mythology, who was fabled to have lost his wife while hunting, by a wound from the tusk of a wild boar. He was greatly beloved by the goddess Venus, who was inconsolable at his loss. His blood according to Ovid produced the anemone, but according to others the adonium, while the anemone sprang from the tears of Venus. A festival in honor of Adonis was celebrated at Byblus in Phoenicia and in most of the Grecian cities, and even by the Jews when they degenerated into idolatry. It took place in July, and was accompanied by obscene rites. Tanach

a slight variation of the name Taanach. (Joshua 21:26) Tanhumeth

(consolation), the father of Seraiah in the time of Gedaliah. (2 Kings 25:23; Jeremiah 40:8) (B.C. before 582.) Taphath

(ornament), the daughter of Solomon, who was married to ben-Abinadab. (1 Kings 4:11) (B.C. about 1000.) Taphon

one of the cities in Judea fortified by Bacchides. 1 Macc. 9:50. It is probably the Beth-tappuah of the Old Testament. Tappush

(the apple-city). •A city of Judah, of the Shefelah or lowland. (Joshua 15:34) •A place on the boundary of the "children of Joseph." (Joshua 16:8; 17:8) Its full name was probably En-tappuah. (Joshua 17:7) ("Around the city was a district called the land of Tappuah; the city belonged to Ephraim and the land to Manasseh. (Joshua 17:8) "—Schaff.) •One of the sons of Hebron, of the tribe of Judah. (1 Chronicles 2:43) It is doubtless the same as Beth-tappuah. (B.C. before 1450.) Tarah

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(delay), a desert-station of the Israelites between Tahath and Mithcah. (Numbers 33:27) Taralah

(reeling), one of the towns in the allotment of Benjamin. (Joshua 18:27) Tarea

the same as Tahreah, the son of Micah. (1 Chronicles 8:35) Tares

There can be little doubt that the zizania of the parable, (Matthew 13:25) denotes the weed called "darnel" (Lolium temulentum). The darnel before it comes into ear is very similar in appearance to wheat; hence the command that the zizania should be left to the harvest, lest while men plucked up the tares "they should root up also the wheat with them." Dr. Stanley, however, speaks of women and children picking up from the wheat in the cornfields of Samaria the tall green stalks, still called by the Arabs zuwan . "These stalks," he continues, "if sown designedly throughout the fields, would be inseparable from the wheat, from which, even when growing naturally and by chance, they are at first sight hardly distinguishable." See also Thomson ("The Land and the Book" p. 420): "The grain is in just the proper stage to illustrate the parable. In those parts where the grain has headed out, the tares have done the same, and then a child cannot mistake them for wheat or barley; but where both are less developed, the closest scrutiny will often fail to detect them. Even the farmers, who in this country generally weed their fields, do not attempt to separate the one from the other." The grains of the L. temulentum, if eaten, produce convulsions, and even death. Targum

[See Versions, Ancient, Of The Old And New Testaments, Versions, Authorized] Tarpelites, The

A race of Assyrian colonists who were planted int he cites of Samaria after the captivity of the northern kingdom of Israel. (Ezra 4:9) They have not been identified with any certainty. Tarshish

(established). •Probably Tartessus, a city and emporium of the Phoenicians in the south of Spain, represented as one of the sons of Javan. (Genesis 10:4; 1 Kings 10:22; 1 Chronicles 1:7; Psalms 48:7; Isaiah 2:16; Jeremiah 10:9; Ezekiel 27:12,25; Jonah 1:3; 4:2) The identity of the two places is rendered highly probable by the following circumstances: 1st. There is a very close similarity of name between them, Tartessus being merely Tarshish in the Aramaic form. 2nd. There seems to have been a special relation between Tarshish and Tyre, as there was at one time between Tartessus and Phoenicians. 3rd. The articles which Tarshish is stated by the prophet Ezekiel, (Ezekiel 27:12) to have supplied to Tyre are precisely such as we know, through classical writers, to have been productions of the Spanish peninsula. In regard to tin, the trade of Tarshish in this metal is peculiarly significant, and, taken in conjunction with similarity of name and other circumstances already mentioned, is reasonably conclusive as to its identity with Tartessus. For even not when countries in Europe or on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea where tin is found are very few; and in reference to ancient times, it would be difficult to name any such countries except Iberia or Spain, Lusitania, which was somewhat less in extent than Portugal, and Cornwall in Great Britain. In the absence of positive proof, we may acquiesce in the statement of Strabo, that the river Baetis (now the Guadalquivir) was formerly called Tartessus, that the city Tartessus was situated between the two arms by which the river flowed into the sea, and that the adjoining country was called Tartessis.

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•From the book of Chronicles there would seem to have been a Tarshish accessible from the Red Sea, in addition to the Tarshish of the south of Spain. Thus, with regard to the ships of Tarshish, which Jehoshaphat caused to be constructed at Ezion-geber on the Elanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, (1 Kings 22:48) it is said in the Chronicles, (2 Chronicles 20:36) that they were made to go to Tarshish; and in like manner the navy of ships, which Solomon had previously made in Ezion-geber, (1 Kings 9:26) is said in the Chronicles, (2 Chronicles 9:21) to have gone to Tarshish with the servants of Hiram. It is not to be supposed that the author of these passages in the Chronicles contemplated a voyage to Tarshish in the south of Spain by going round what has since been called the Cape of Good Hope. The expression "ships of Tarshish" originally meant ships destined to go to Tarshish; and then probably came to signify large Phoenician ships, of a particular size the description, destined for long voyages, just as in English "East Indiaman" was a general name given to vessels, some of which were not intended to go to India at all. Hence we may infer that the word Tarshish was also used to signify any distant place, and in this case would be applied to one in the Indian Ocean. This is shown by the nature of the imports with which the fleet returned, which are specified as "gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks ." (1 Kings 10:22) The gold might possibly have been obtained form Africa, or from Ophir in Arabia, and the ivory and the apes might likewise have been imported from Africa; but the peacocks point conclusively, not to Africa, but to India. There are only two species known: both inhabit the mainland and islands of India; so that the mention of the peacock seems to exclude the possibility of the voyage having been to Africa. Tarsus

the chief town of Cilicia, "no mean city" in other respects, but illustrious to all time as the birthplace and early residence of the apostle Paul. (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3) Even in the flourishing period of Greek history it was a city of some considerable consequence. In the civil wars of Rome it took Caesar's aide, sad on the occasion of a visit from him had its name changed to Juliopolis. Augustus made it a "free city." It was renowned as a place of education under the early Roman emperors. Strabo compares it in this respect to Athens unto Alexandria. Tarsus also was a place of much commerce. It was situated in a wild and fertile plain on the banks of the Cydnus. No ruins of any importance remain. Tartak

(prince of darkness), one of the gods of the Avite or Avvite colonists of Samaria. (2 Kings 17:31) According to rabbinical tradition, Tartak is said to have been worshipped under the form of an ass. Tartan

which occurs only in (2 Kings 18:17) and Isai 20:1 Has been generally regarded as a proper name; like Rabsaris and Rabshakeh, it is more probably an official designation, and indicates the Assyrian commander-in-chief. Tatnai

(gift), satrap of the province west of the Euphrates in the time of Darius Hystaspes. (Ezra 5:3,6; 6:6,13) (B.C. 520.) The name is thought to be Persian. Taverns, The Three

[Three Taverns TAVERNS] Taxes

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I. Under the judges, according to the theocratic government contemplated by the law, the only payments incumbent upon the people as of permanent obligation were the Tithes, the Firstfruits, the Redemption-money of the first-born, and other offerings as belonging to special occasions. The payment by each Israelite of the half-shekel as "atonement-money," for the service of the tabernacle, on taking the census of the people, (Exodus 30:13) does not appear to have had the character of a recurring tax, but to have been supplementary to the freewill offerings of (Exodus 25:1-7) levied for the one purpose of the construction of the sacred tent. In later times, indeed, after the return from Babylon, there was an annual payment for maintaining the fabric and services of the temple; but the fact that this begins by of a shekel, (Nehemiah 10:32) shows that till then there was no such payment recognized as necessary. A little later the third became a half, and under the name of the didrachma, (Matthew 17:24) was paid by every Jew, in whatever part of the world he might be living. II. The kingdom, with centralized government and greater magnificence, involved of course, a larger expenditure, and therefore a heavier taxation, The chief burdens appear to have been— (1) A tithe of the produce both of the soil and of live stock. (1 Samuel 8:15,17) (2) Forced military service for a month every year. (1 Samuel 8:12; 1 Kings 9:22; 1 Chronicles 27:1) (3) Gifts to the king. (1 Samuel 10:27; 16:20; 17:18) (4) Import duties. (1 Kings 10:15) (5) The monopoly of certain-branches of commerce. (1 Kings 9:28; 22:48; 10:28,29) (6) The appropriation to the king's use of the early crop of hay. (Amos 7:1) At times, too, in the history of both the kingdoms there were special burdens. A tribute of fifty shekels a head had to be paid by Menahem to the Assyrian king, (2 Kings 16:20) and under his successor Hoshea this assumed the form of an annual tribute. (2 Kings 17:4) III. Under the Persian empire the taxes paid by the Jews were, in their broad outlines, the same in kind as those of other subject races. The financial system which gained for Darius Hystaspes the name of the "shopkeeper king" involved the payment by each satrap of a fixed sum as the tribute due from his province. In Judea, as in other provinces, the inhabitants had to provide in kind for the maintenance of the governor's household, besides a money payment of forty shekels a day. (Nehemiah 5:14,15) In Ezra 4:13,20; 7:24 We get a formal enumeration of the three great branches of the revenue. The influence of Ezra secured for the whole ecclesiastical order, from the priests down to the Nethinim, an immunity from all three (Ezra 7:24) but the burden pressed heavily on the great body of the people. IV. Under the Egyptian and Syrian kings the taxes paid by the Jews became yet heavier. The "farming" system of finance was adopted in its worst form. The taxes were put up to auction. The contract sum for those of Phoenicia, Judea and Samaria had been estimated at about 8000 talents. An unscrupulous adventurer would bid double that sum, and would then go down to the province, and by violence and cruelty, like that of Turkish or Hindoo collectors, squeeze out a large margin of profit for himself. V. The pressure of Roman taxation, if not absolutely heavier, was probably more galling, as being more thorough and systematic, more distinctively a mark of bondage. The capture of Jerusalem by Pompey was followed immediately by the imposition of a tribute, and within a short time the sum thus taken from the resources of the country amounted to 10,000 talents. When Judea became formally a Roman province, the whole financial system of the empire came as a natural consequence. The taxes were systematically farmed, and the publicans appeared as a new curse to the country. The portoria were levied at harbors, piers and the gates of cities. (Matthew 17:24; Romans 13:7) In addition to this there was the poll-tax paid by every Jew, and looked upon, for that reason, as the special badge of servitude. United with this, as part of the same system, there was also, in all probability, a property tax of some kind. In addition to these general taxes, the inhabitants of Jerusalem were subject to a special house duty about this period.

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Taxing

The English word now conveys to us more distinctly the notion of a tax or tribute actually levied; but it appears to have been used in the sixteenth century for the simple assessment of a subsidy upon the property of a given county, or the registration of the people for the purpose of a poll-tax. Two distinct registrations, or taxings, are mentioned in the New Testament, both of them by St. Luke. The first is said to have been the result of an edict of the emperor Augustus, that "all the world (i.e. the Roman empire) should be taxed," (Luke 2:1) and is connected by the evangelist with the name of Cyrenius Quirinus. [Cyrenius] The second and more important, (Acts 6:37) is distinctly associated, in point of time, with the revolt of Judas of Galilee. Tebah

(slaughter), eldest of the sons of Nahor by his concubine Reumah. (Genesis 22:24) (B.C. 1872.) Tebaliah

(purified), third son of Hosah of the children of Merari. (1 Chronicles 26:11) (B.C. 1014.) Tebeth

[Month] Tehinnah

(supplication), the father or founder of Ir-nahash, the city of Nahash, and son of Eshton. (1 Chronicles 4:12) (B.C. about 1083.) Teil Tree

[Oak] Tekoa, Or Tekoah

(a stockade). •A town in the tribe of Judah. (2 Chronicles 11:6) on the range of hills which rise near Hebron and stretch eastward toward the Dead Sea. Jerome says that Tekoa was six Roman miles from Bethlehem, and that as he wrote he had that village daily before his eyes. The "wise woman" whom Joab employed to effect a reconciliation between David and Absalom was obtained from this place. (2 Samuel 14:2) Here also Ira the son of Ikkesh, one of David's thirty, "the mighty men," was born, and was called on that account "the Tekoite," (2 Samuel 23:26) It was one of the places which Rehoboam fortified, at the beginning of his reign, as a defence against invasion from the south. (2 Chronicles 11:6) Some of the people from Tekoa took part in building the walls of Jerusalem, after the return from the captivity. (Nehemiah 3:6,27) In (Jeremiah 6:1) the prophet exclaims, "Blow the trumpet in Tekoa, and set up a sign of fire in Bethhaccerem." But Tekoa is chiefly memorable as the birthplace (Amos 7:14) of the prophet Amos. Tekoa is still as Teku'a. It lies on an elevated hill, which spreads itself out into an irregular plain of moderate extent. Various ruins exist, such as the walls of houses, cisterns, broken columns and heaps of building-stones. •A name occurring in the genealogies of Judah, (1 Chronicles 2:24; 4:5) as the son of Ashur. There is little doubt that the town of Tekoa is meant. Tekoite, The

Ira ben-Ikkesh, one of David's warriors, is thus designated. (2 Samuel 23:26; 1 Chronicles 11:28; 27:8) The common people among the Tekoites displayed great activity in the repairs of the wall of Jerusalem under Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 3:6,27) Telabib

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(cornhill) was probably a city of Chaldaea or Babylonia, not of upper Mesopotamia as generally supposed. (Ezekiel 3:16) The whole scene of Ezekiel's preaching and visions seems to have been Chaldaea proper; and the river Chebar, as already observed, was not the Khabour, but a branch of the Euphrates. Telah

(vigor), a descendant of Ephraim, and ancestor of Joshua. (1 Chronicles 7:25) (B.C. before 1491.) Telaim

(lambs), the place at which Saul collected and numbered his forces before his attack on Amalek, (1 Samuel 16:4) may be identical with Telem, which see. Telasear

(Assyrian hill) is mentioned in (2 Kings 19:12) and in Isai 37:12 As a city inhabited by "the children of Eden,"—which had been conquered and was held in the time of Sennacherib, by the Assyrians. it must have been in western Mesopotamia, in the neighborhood of Harran and Orfa. Telem

(oppression). •One of the cities in the extreme south of Judah, (Joshua 15:24) probably the same as Telaim. The name Dhullam is found in Van Deuteronomy Velde's map, attached to a district immediately to the north of the Kubbet el-Baul, south of el Milh and Ar'arah—a position very suitable. •A porter or doorkeeper of the temple in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 10:24) He is probably the same as Talmon in (Nehemiah 12:25) Telharsa, Or Telharesha

(hill of the artificer), one of the Babylonian towns or villages mentioned in (Ezra 2:59; Nehemiah 7:61) along with Tel-melah and Cherub, probably in the low country near the sea. Telmelah

[TEL-HARSA] Tema

(a desert), the ninth son of Ishmael, (Genesis 25:15; 1 Chronicles 1:30) whence the tribe called after him, mentioned in (Job 6:19; Jeremiah 25:23) and also the land occupied by this tribe. (Isaiah 21:13,14) (B.C. after 1850.) The name is identified with Teyma, a small town on the confines of Syria. Teman

(the south). •A son of Eliphaz, son of Esau by Adah. (Genesis 36:11,15,41; 1 Chronicles 1:36,53) (B.C. about 1792.) •A country, and probably a city, named after the Edomite phylarch, or from which the phylarch took his name. The Hebrew signifies "south," etc., see (Job 9:9; Isaiah 43:6) and it is probable that the land of Teman was a southern portion of the land of Edom, or, in a wider sense, that of the sons of the east. Teman is mentioned in five places by the prophets, in four of which it is connected with Edom and in two with Dedan. (Jeremiah 49:7,8; Ezekiel 25:13) Eusebius and Jerome mention Teman as a town in their day distant 15 miles from Petra, and a Roman post. Temani

[Teman] Temanite

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an inhabitant of Teman. Temeni

son of Ashur the father of Tekoa, by his wife Naarah. (1 Chronicles 4:6) (B.C. about 1450.) Temple

There is perhaps no building of the ancient world which has excited so much attention since the time of its destruction as the temple which Solomon built by Herod. Its spoils were considered worthy of forming the principal illustration of one of the most beautiful of Roman triumphal arches, and Justinian's highest architectural ambition was that he might surpass it. Throughout the middle ages it influenced to a considerable degree the forms of Christian churches, and its peculiarities were the watchwords and rallying-points of all associations of builders. When the French expedition to Egypt, int he first years of this century, had made the world familiar with the wonderful architectural remains of that country, every one jumped to the conclusion that Solomon's temple must have been designed after an Egyptian model. The discoveries in Assyria by Botta and Layard have within the last twenty years given an entirely new direction to the researches of the restorers. Unfortunately, however, no Assyrian temple has yet been exhumed of a nature to throw much light on this subject, and we are still forced to have recourse to the later buildings at Persepolis, or to general deductions from the style of the nearly contemporary secular buildings at Nineveh and elsewhere, for such illustrations as are available. THE TEMPLE OF Solomon.—It was David who first proposed to replace the tabernacle by a more permanent building, but was forbidden for the reasons assigned by the prophet Nathan, (2 Samuel 7:5) etc.; and though he collected materials and made arrangements, the execution of the task was left for his son Solomon. (The gold and silver alone accumulated by David are at the lowest reckoned to have amounted to between two and three billion dollars, a sum which can be paralleled from secular history.—Lange.) Solomon, with the assistance of Hiram king of Tyre, commenced this great undertaking int he fourth year of his reign, B.C. 1012, and completed it in seven years, B.C. 1005. (There were 183,000 Jews and strangers employed on it—of Jews 30,000, by rotation 10,000 a month; of Canaanites 153,600, of whom 70,000 were bearers of burdens, 80,000 hewers of wood and stone, and 3600 overseers. The parts were all prepared at a distance from the site of the building, and when they were brought together the whole immense structure was erected without the sound of hammer, axe or any tool of iron. (1 Kings 6:7)—Schaff.) The building occupied the site prepared for it by David, which had formerly been the threshing-floor of the Jebusite Ornan or Araunah, on Mount Moriah. The whole area enclosed by the outer walls formed a square of about 600 feet; but the sanctuary itself was comparatively small, inasmuch as it was intended only for the ministrations of the priests, the congregation of the people assembling in the courts. In this and all other essential points the temple followed the model of the tabernacle, from which it differed chiefly by having chambers built about the sanctuary for the abode of the priests and attendants and the keeping of treasures and stores. In all its dimensions, length, breadth and height, the sanctuary itself was exactly double the size of the tabernacle, the ground plan measuring 80 cubits by 40, while that of the tabernacle was 40 by 20, and the height of the temple being 30 cubits, while that of the tabernacle was 15. [The readers would compare the following account with the article Tabernacle] As in the tabernacle, the temple consisted of three parts, the porch, the holy place, and the holy of holies. The front of the porch was supported, after the manner of some Egyptian temples, by the two great brazen pillars, Jachin and Boaz, 18 cubits high, with capitals of 5 cubits more, adorned with lily-work and pomegranates. (1 Kings 7:15-22) The places of the two "veils" of the tabernacle were occupied by partitions, in

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which were folding-doors. The whole interior was lines with woodwork richly carved and overlaid with gold. Indeed, both within and without the building was conspicuously chiefly by the lavish use of the gold of Ophir and Parvaim. It glittered in the morning sun (it has been well said) like the sanctuary of an El Dorado. Above the sacred ark, which was placed, as of old, in the most holy place, were made new cherubim, one pair of whose wings met above the ark, and another pair reached to the walls behind them. In the holy place, besides the altar of incense, which was made of cedar overlaid with gold there were seven golden candlesticks in stead of one, and the table of shew-bread was replaced by ten golden tables, bearing, besides the shew bread, the innumerable golden vessels for the service of the sanctuary. The outer court was no doubt double the size of that of the tabernacle; and we may therefore safely assume that if was 10 cubits in height, 100 cubits north and south, and 200 east and west. If contained an inner court, called the "court of the priests;" but the arrangement of the courts and of the porticos and gateways of the enclosure, though described by Josephus, belongs apparently to the temple of Herod. The outer court there was a new altar of burnt offering, much larger than the old one. [Altar] Instead of the brazen laver there was "a molten sea" of brass, a masterpiece of Hiram's skill for the ablution of the priests. It was called a "sea" from its great size. [Sea, Molten, MOLTEN] The chambers for the priests were arranged in successive stories against the sides of the sanctuary; not, however, reaching to the top, so as to leave space for the windows to light the holy and the most holy place. We are told by Josephus and the Talmud that there was a superstructure on the temple equal in height to the lower part; and this is confirmed by the statement in the books of Chronicles that Solomon "overlaid the upper chambers with gold." (2 Chronicles 3:9) Moreover, "the altars on the top of the upper chamber," mentioned in the books of the Kings, (2 Kings 23:12) were apparently upon the temple. The dedication of the temple was the grandest ceremony ever performed under the Mosaic dispensation. The temple was destroyed on the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 586. TEMPLE OF Zerubbabel.—We have very few particulars regarding the temple which the Jews erected after their return from the captivity (about B.C. 520), and no description that would enable us to realize its appearance. But there are some dimensions given in the Bible and elsewhere which are extremely interesting, as affording points of comparison between it and the temple which preceded it and the one erected after it. The first and most authentic are those given in the book of Ezra, (Ezra 6:3) when quoting the decree of Cyrus, wherein it is said, "Let the house be builded, the place where they offered sacrifices and let the foundations thereof be strongly laid; the height thereof three-score cubits. and the breadth thereof three-score cubits, with three rows of great stones, and a row of new timber." Josephus quotes this passage almost literally, but in doing so enables us to translate with certainty the word here called row as "story"—as indeed the sense would lead us to infer. We see by the description in Ezra that this temple was about one third larger than Solomon's. From these dimensions we gather that if the priests and Levites and elders of families were disconsolate at seeing how much more sumptuous the old temple was than the one which on account of their poverty they had hardly been able to erect, (Ezra 3:12) it certainly was not because it was smaller; but it may have been that the carving and the gold and the other ornaments of Solomon's temple far surpassed this, and the pillars of the portico and the veils may all have been far more splendid; so also probably were the vessels and all this is what a Jew would mourn over far more than mere architectural splendor. In speaking of these temples we must always bear in mind that their dimensions were practically very far inferior to those of the heathen. Even that of Ezra is not larger than an average parish church of the last century; Solomon's was smaller. It was the lavish display of the precious metals, the elaboration

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of carved ornament, and the beauty of the textile fabrics, which made up their splendor and rendered them so precious in the eyes of the people. TEMPLE OF Ezekiel.—The vision of a temple which the prophet Ezekiel saw while residing on the banks of the Chebar in Babylonia, in the twenty-fifth year of the captivity, does not add much to our knowledge of the subject. It is not a description of a temple that ever was built or ever could be erected at Jerusalem, and can consequently only be considered as the beau ideal of what a Shemitic temple ought to be. TEMPLE OF Herod.—Herod the Great announced to the people assembled at the Passover, B.C. 20 or 19, his intention of restoring the temple; (probably a stroke of policy on the part of Herod to gain the favor of the Jews and to make his name great.) if we may believe Josephus, he pulled down the whole edifice to its foundations, and laid them anew on an enlarged scale; but the ruins still exhibit, in some parts, what seem to be the foundations laid by Zerubbable, and beneath them the more massive substructions of Solomon. The new edifice was a stately pile of Graeco-Roman architecture, built in white marble gilded acroteria . It is minutely described by Josephus, and the New Testament has made us familiar with the pride of the Jews in its magnificence. A different feeling, however, marked the commencement of the work, which met with some opposition from the fear that what Herod had begun he would not be able to finish. he overcame all jealousy by engaging not to pull down any part of the existing buildings till all the materials for the new edifice were collected on its site. Two years appear to have been occupied in preparations—among which Josephus mentions the teaching of some of the priests and Levites to work as masons and carpenters—and then the work began. The holy "house," including the porch, sanctuary and holy of holies, was finished in a year and a half, B.C. 16. Its completion, on the anniversary of Herod's inauguration, was celebrated by lavish sacrifices and a great feast. About B.C. 9—eight years from the commencement—the court and cloisters of the temple were finished, and the bridge between the south cloister and the upper city (demolished by Pompey) was doubtless now rebuilt with that massive masonry of which some remains still survive. (The work, however, was not entirely ended till A.D. 64, under Herod Agrippa II. So the statement in (John 2:20) is correct.—Schaff.) The temple or holy "house" itself was in dimensions and arrangement very similar to that of Solomon, or rather that of Zerubbabel—more like the latter; but this was surrounded by an inner enclosure of great strength and magnificence, measuring as nearly as can be made out 180 cubits by 240, and adorned by porches and ten gateways of great magnificence; and beyond this again was an outer enclosure measuring externally 400 cubits each way, which was adorned with porticos of greater splendor than any we know of as attached to any temple of the ancient world. The temple was certainly situated in the southwest angle of the area now known as the Haram area at Jerusalem, and its dimensions were what Josephus states them to be—400 cubits, or one stadium, each way. At the time when Herod rebuilt it, he enclosed a space "twice as large" as that before occupied by the temple and its courts—an expression that probably must not be taken too literally at least, if we are to depend on the measurements of Hecataeus. According to them, the whole area of Herod's temple was between four and five times greater than that which preceded it. What Herod did apparently, was to take in the whole space between the temple and the city wall on its east side, and to add a considerable space on the north and south to support the porticos which he added there. As the temple terrace thus became the principal defence of the city on the east side, there were no gates or openings in that direction, and being situated on a sort of rocky brow—as evidenced from its appearance in the vaults that bounded it on this side—if was at all later times considered unattackable from the eastward. The north side, too, where not covered by the fortress Antonia, became part of

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the defenses of the city, and was likewise without external gates. On the south side, which was enclosed by the wall of Ophel, there were notable gates nearly in the centre. These gates still exist at a distance of about 365 feet from the southwestern angle, and are perhaps the only architectural features of the temple of Herod which remain in situ . This entrance consists of a double archway of Cyclopean architecture on the level of the ground, opening into a square vestibule measuring 40 feet each way. From this a double funnel nearly 200 feet in length, leads to a flight of steps which rise to the surface in the court of the temple, exactly at that gateway of the inner temple which led to the altar, and is one of the four gateways on this side by which any one arriving from Ophel would naturally wish to enter the inner enclosure. We learn from the Talmud that the gate of the inner temple to which this passage led was called the "water gate;" and it is interesting to be able to identify a spot so prominent in the description of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 12:37) Toward the west there were four gateways to the external enclosure of the temple. The most magnificent part of the temple, in an architectural point of view, seems certainly to have been the cloisters which were added to the outer court when it was enlarged by Herod. The cloisters in the west, north and east sides were composed of double rows of Corinthian columns, 25 cubits or 37 feet 6 inches in height, with flat roof, and resting against the outer wall of the temple. These, however, were immeasurably surpassed in magnificence by the royal porch or Stoa Basilica, which overhung the southern wall. It consisted of a nave and two aisled, that toward the temple being open, that toward the country closed by a wall. The breadth of the centre aisle was 95 feet of the side aisles, 30 from centre to centre of the pillars; their height 50 feet, and that of the centre aisle 100 feet. Its section was thus something in excess of that of York Cathedral, while its total length was one stadium or 600 Greek feet, or 100 feet in excess of York or our largest Gothic cathedrals. This magnificent structure was supported by 162 Corinthian columns. The porch on the east was called "Solomon's Porch." The court of the temple was very nearly a square. It may have been exactly so, for we have not the details to enable us to feel quite certain about it. To the eastward of this was the court of the women. The great ornament of these inner courts seems to have been their gateways, the three especially on the north end south leading to the temple court. These according to Josephus, were of great height, strongly fortified and ornamented with great elaboration. But the wonder of all was the great eastern gate leading from the court of the women to the upper court. It was in all probability the one called the "beautiful gate" in the New Testament. immediately within this gateway stood the altar of burnt offerings. Both the altar and the temple were enclosed by a low parapet, one cubit in height, placed so as to keep the people separate from the priests while the latter were performing their functions. Within this last enclosure, toward the westward, stood the temple itself. As before mentioned, its internal dimensions were the same as those of the temple of Solomon. Although these remained the same, however, there seems no reason to doubt that. the whole plan was augmented by the pteromata, or surrounding parts being increased from 10 to 20 cubits, so that the third temple, like the second, measured 60 cubits across and 100 cubits east and west. The width of the facade was also augmented by wings or shoulders projecting 20 cubits each way, making the whole breadth 100 cubits, or equal to the length. There is no reason for doubting that the sanctuary always stood on identically the same spot in which it had been placed by Solomon a thousand years before it was rebuilt by Herod. The temple of Herod was destroyed by the Romans under Titus, Friday, August 9, A.D. 70. A Mohammedan mosque now stands on its site. Ten Commandments

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The popular name in this, as in so many instances,is not that of Scripture. There we have the "TEN WORDS," (Exodus 34:28; 4:13; 10:4) the "Covenant," Ex., Deut. 11. cc.; (1 Kings 8:21; 2 Chronicles 6:11) etc., or, very often as the solemn attestation of the divine will, the "TESTIMONY." (Exodus 25:16,21; 31:18) etc. The circumstances in which the Ten great Words were first given to the people surrounded them with an awe which attached to no other precept. In the midst of the cloud and the darkness and the flashing lightning and the fiery smoke and the thunder like the voice of a trumpet, Moses was called to Mount Sinai to receive the law without which the people would cease to be a holy nation. (Exodus 19:20) Here, as elsewhere, Scripture unites two facts which men separate. God, and not man was speaking to the Israelites in those terrors, and yet, in the language of later inspired teachers, other instrumentality was not excluded. No other words were proclaimed in like manner. And the record was as exceptional as the original revelation. Of no other words could it be said that they were written as these were written, engraved on the Tables of Stone, not as originating in man's contrivance or sagacity, but by the power of the Eternal Spirit, by the "finger of God." (Exodus 31:18; 32:16) The number Ten was, we can hardly doubt, itself significant to Moses and the Israelites. The received symbol, then and at all times, of completeness, it taught the people that the law of Jehovah was perfect. (Psalms 19:7) The term "Commandments" had come into use in the time of Christ. (Luke 18:20) Their division into two tables is not only expressly mentioned but the stress is upon the two leaves no doubt that the distinction was important, and that answered to that summary of the law which was made both by Moses and by Christ into two precepts; so that the first table contained Duties to God, and the second, Duties to our Neighbor . There are three principal divisions of the two tables: •That of the Roman Catholic Church, making the first table contain three commandments and the second the other seven. •The familiar division, referring the first four to our duty toward God and the six remaining to our duty toward man. •The division recognized by the old Jewish writers, Josephus and Philo, which places five commandments in each table. It has been maintained that the law of filial duty, being a close consequence of God's fatherly relation to us, maybe referred to the first table. But this is to place human parents on a level with God, and, by purity of reasoning the Sixth Commandment might be added to the first table, as murder is the destruction of God's image in man. Far more reasonable is the view which regards the authority of parents as heading the second table, as the earthly reflex of that authority of the Father of his people and of all men which heads the first, and as the first principle of the whole law of love to our neighbor; because we are all brethren and the family is, for good and ill the model of the state. "The Decalogue differs from all the other legislation of Moses: (1) It was proclaimed by God himself in a most public and solemn manner. (2) It was given under circumstances of most appalling majesty and sublimity. (3) It was written by the finger of God on two tables of stone. (5:22) (4) It differed from any and all other laws given to Israel in that it was comprehensive and general rather than specific and particular. (6) It was complete, being one finished whole to which nothing was to be added, from which nothing was ever taken away. (6) The law of the Ten Commandments was honored by Jesus Christ as embodying the substance of the law of God enjoined upon man. (7) It can scarcely be doubted that Jesus had his eye specially if not exclusively on this law, (5:18) as one never to be repealed from which not one jot or tittle should ever pass away. (8) It is marked by wonderful simplicity and brevity such a

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contrast to our human legislation, our British statute-book for instance, which it would need an elephant to carry and an OEdipus to interpret." Tent

Among the leading characteristics of the nomad races, those two have always been numbered whose origin has been ascribed to Jabal the son of Lameth, (Genesis 4:20) viz., to be tent-dwellers and keepers of cattle. The same may be said of the forefathers of the Hebrew race; nor was it until the return into Canaan from Egypt that the Hebrews became inhabitants of cities. An Arab tent is called beit, "house;" its covering consists of stuff, about three quarters of a yard broad, made of black goat's-hair, (Song of Solomon 1:5) laid parallel with the tent's length. This is sufficient to resist the heaviest rain. The tent-poles or columns are usually nine in number, placed in three groups; but many tents have only one pole, others two or three. The ropes which hold the tent in its place are fastened, not to the tent-cover itself, but to loops consisting of a leathern thong tied to the ends of a stick, round which is twisted a piece of old cloth, which is itself sewed to the tent-cover. The ends of the tent-ropes are fastened to short sticks or pins, which are driven into the ground with a mallet. (Judges 4:21) Round the back and sides of the tent runs a piece of stuff removable at pleasure to admit air. The tent is divided into two apartments, separated by a carpet partition drawn across the middle of the tent and fastened to the three middle posts. When the pasture near an encampment is exhausted, the tents are taken down, packed on camels and removed. (Genesis 26:17,22,25; Isaiah 38:12) In choosing places for encampment, Arabs prefer the neighborhood of trees, for the sake of the shade and coolness which they afford. (Genesis 18:4,8) Terah

(station), the father of Abram, Nahor and Haran, and through them the ancestor of the great families of the Israelites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, Moabites and Ammonites. (Genesis 11:24-32) The account given of him in the Old Testament narrative is very brief. We learn from it simply that he was an idolater, (Joshua 24:2) that he dwelt beyond the Euphrates in Ur of the Chaldees, (Genesis 11:28) and that in the southwesterly migration, which from some unexplained cause he undertook in his old age, he went with his son Abram, his daughter-in-law Sarai, and his grandson Lot, "to go into the land of Canaan, and they came unto Haran, and dwelt there." (Genesis 11:31) And finally, "the days of Terah were two hundred and five years; and Terah died in Haran." (Genesis 11:32) (B.C. 1921.) Teraphim

This word occurs only in the plural, and denotes images connected with magical rites. The derivation of the name is obscure. In one case— (1 Samuel 19:13,16)—a single statue seems to be intended by the plural. The teraphim, translated "images" in the Authorized Version, carried away from Laban by Rachel were regarded by Laban as gods, and it would therefore appear that they were used by those who added corrupt practices to the patriarchal religion. Teraphim again are included among Micah's images. (Judges 17:3-5; 18:17,18,20) Teraphim were consulted for oracular answers by the Israelites, (Zechariah 10:2) comp. Judg 18:5,6; 1Sam 15:22,23; 19:13,16, LXX., and 2Kin 23:24 And by the Babylonians in the case of Nebuchadnezzar. (Ezekiel 21:19-22) Teresh

(strictness), one of the two eunuchs whose plot to assassinate Ahasuerus was discovered by Mordecai. (Esther 2:21; 6:2) He was hanged. (B.C. 479.) Tertius

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(third), probably a Roman, was the amanuensis of Paul in writing the Epistle to the Romans. (Romans 16:22) (A.D. 55.) Tertullus

(diminutive from Tertius), "a certain orator," (Acts 24:1) who was retained by the high priest and Sanhedrin to accuse the apostle Paul at Caesarea before the Roman procurator Antonius Felix. He evidently belonged to the class of professional orators. We may infer that Tertullus was of Roman, or at all events of Italian, origin. (A.D. 55.) Testament, New

[NEW TESTAMENT; BIBLE] NEW TESTAMENT - 3186 Testament, Old

[OLD TESTAMENT; BIBLE] OLD TESTAMENT - 3249 Tetrarch

properly the sovereign or governor of the fourth part of a country. (Matthew 14:1; Luke 3:1; 9:7; Acts 13:1) The title was, however, often applied to any one who governed a Roman province, of whatever size. The title of king was sometimes assigned to a tetrarch. (Matthew 14:9; Mark 6:14,22) Thaddeus

one of the twelve apostles. (Matthew 10:3; Mark 3:18) From a comparison with the catalogue of St. Luke, (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13) it seems scarcely possible to doubt that the three names, of Judas, Lebbeus and Thaddeus were borne by one and the same person. [See Jude, Or Judas] Thamah

(daughter). "The children of Thamah" were a family of Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:53) Thamar

Tamar, 1. (Matthew 1:3) Thank Offering, Or Peace Offering

the properly eucharistic offering among the Jews, in its theory resembling the meat offering and therefore indicating that the offerer was already reconciled to and in covenant with God. Its ceremonial is described in (Leviticus 3:1) ... The peace offerings, unlike other sacrifices, were not ordained to be offered in fixed and regular course. The only constantly-recurring peace offering appears to have been that of the two firstling lambs at Pentecost. (Leviticus 23:19) The general principle of the peace offering seems to have been that it should be entirely spontaneous, offered as occasion should arise, from the feeling of the sacrificer himself. (Leviticus 19:5) On the first institution, (Leviticus 7:11-17) peace offerings are divided into "offerings of thanksgiving" and "vows or freewill offerings;" of which latter class the offering by a Nazarite on the completion of his vow is the most remarkable. (Numbers 6:14) We find accordingly peace offerings offered for the people on a great scale at periods of unusual solemnity or rejoicing. In two cases only— (Judges 20:26; 2 Samuel 24:26)—peace offerings are mentioned se offered with burnt offerings at a time of national sorrow and fasting. Thara

Terah the father of Abraham. (Luke 3:34) Tharra

(Esther 12:1) a corrupt form of Teresh. Tharshish

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In this more accurate form the translators of the Authorized Version have given in two passages— (1 Kings 10:22; 22:48)—the name elsewhere presented as Tarshish. •

•A Benjamite, one of the family of Bilhan the house of Jediael. (1 Chronicles 7:10) only. Theatre

For the explanation of the biblical allusions, two or three points only require notice. The Greek term, like the corresponding English term, denotes the place where dramatic performances are exhibited, and also the scene itself or spectacle which is witnessed there. It occurs in the first or local sense in (Acts 19:29) The other sense of the term "theatre" occurs in (1 Corinthians 4:9) Thebes

(Authorized Version No, the multitude of No. populous No), a chief cite of ancient Egypt, long the capital of the upper country, and the seat of the Diospolitan dynasties, that ruled over all Egypt at the era of its highest splendor. It was situated on both sides of the Nile, 400 or 500 miles from its mouth. The sacred name of Thebes was P-amen "the abode of Amon," which the Greeks reproduced in their Diospolis, especially with the addition the Great . No-amon is the name of Thebes in the Hebrew Scriptures. (Jeremiah 46:25; Nahum 3:8) Ezekiel uses No simply to designate the Egyptian seat of Amon. (Ezekiel 30:14,16) [No-Amon] its origin and early allusions to it.—The origin of the city is lost in antiquity. Niebuhr is of opinion that Thebes was much older than Memphis, and that, "after the centre of Egyptian life was transferred to lower Egypt, Memphis acquired its greatness through the ruin of Thebes." But both cities date from our earliest authentic knowledge of Egyptian history. The first allusion to Thebes in classical literature is the familiar passage of the Iliad (ix. 381-385): "Egyptian Thebes, were are vast treasures laid up in the houses; where are a hundred gates, and from each two hundred men to forth with horses and chariots." In the first century before Christ, Diodorus visited Thebes, and he devotes several sections of his general work to its history and appearance. Though he saw the city when it had sunk to quite secondary importance, he confirms the tradition of its early grandeur—its circuit of 140 stadia, the size of its public edifices, the magnificence of its temples, the number of its monuments, the dimensions of its private houses, some of them four or five stories high—all giving it an air of grandeur and beauty surpassing not only all other cities of Egypt, but of the world. Monuments.—The monuments of Thebes are the most reliable witnesses for the ancient splendor of the city. These are found in almost equal proportions upon both sides of the river. The plan of the city, as indicated by the principal monuments, was nearly quadrangular, measuring two miles from north to south and four from east to west. Its four great landmarks were, Karnak and Luxor upon the eastern or Arabian side, and Qoornah and Medeenet Haboo upon the western or Libyan side. There are indications that each of these temples may have been connected with those facing it upon two sides by grand dromoi, lined with sphinxes and other colossal figures. Upon the western bank there was almost a continuous line of temples and public edifices for a distance of two miles,from Qoonah to Medeenet Haboo; and Wilkinson conjectures that from a point near the latter, perhaps in the line of the colossi, the "Royal street" ran down to the river, which was crossed by a ferry terminating at Luxor, on the eastern side. Behind this long range of temples and palaces are the Libyan hills, which for a distance of five miles are excavated to the depth of several hundred feet for sepulchral chambers. Some of these, in the number and variety of their chambers, the finish of their sculptures, and the beauty and freshness of their frescoes, are among the most remarkable monuments of Egyptian grandeur and skill. The eastern side of the river is distinguished by the remains of Lurer and Karnak, the latter being of itself a city of temples. The approach to Karnak from the south is marked by a series

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of majestic gateways and towers, which were the appendages of later times to the original structure. The temple properly faces the river, i.e. toward the northwest. The courts land properly connected with this structure occupy a space nearly 1800 feet square, and the buildings represent almost very dynasty of Egypt. Ezekiel proclaims the destruction of Thebes by the arm of Babylon, (Ezekiel 30:14-16) and Jeremiah predicted the same overthrow, (Jeremiah 46:25,26) The city lies to-day a nest of Arab hovels amid crumbling columns and drifting sands. The Persian invader (Cambyses, B.C. 525) completed the destruction that the Babylonian had begun. Thebez

(conspicuous), a place memorable for the death of the brave Abimelech, (Judges 9:50) was known to Eusebius and Jerome, in whose time it was situated "in the district of Neapolis," 13 Roman miles therefrom, on the road to Scythopolis. There it still is, its name—Tubas—hardly changed. Thelasar

[TEL-ASSAR] Theophilus

(friend of God) the person to whom St. Luke inscribes his Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles. (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1) From the honorable epithet applied to him in (Luke 1:3) it has been argued with much probability that he was a person in high official position. All that can be conjectured with any degree of safety concerning him comes to this, that he was a Gentile of rank and consideration who came under the influence of St. Luke or under that of St. Paul at Rome, and was converted to the Christian faith. Thessalonians, First Epistle To The

was written by the apostle Paul at Corinth, a few months after he had founded the church at Thessalonica, at the close of the year A.D. 62 or the beginning of 53. The Epistles to the Thessalonians, then (for the second followed the first after no long interval), are the earliest of St. Paul's writings—perhaps the earliest written records of Christianity. It is interesting, therefore, to compare the Thessalonian epistles with the later letters, and to note the points of These differences are mainly •In the general style of these earlier letters there is greater simplicity and less exuberance of language. •The antagonism to St. Paul is not the same. Here the opposition comes from Jews. A period of five years changes the aspect of the controversy. The opponents of St. Paul are then no longer Jews so much as Judaizing Christians . •Many of the distinctive doctrines of Christianity were yet not evolved and distinctly enunciated till the needs of the Church drew them out into prominence at a later date. It has often been observed, for instance, that there is in the Epistles to the Thessalonians no mention of the characteristic contrast of "faith and works;" that the word "justification" does not once occur; that the idea of dying with Christ and living with Christ, so frequent in St. Paul's later writings, is absent in these. In the Epistles to the Thessalonians, the gospel preached is that of the coming of Christ, rather than of the cross of Christ. The occasion of this epistle was as follows: St. Paul had twice attempted to re-visit Thessalonica, and both times had been disappointed. Thus prevented from seeing them in person, he had sent Timothy to inquire and report to him as to their condition. (1 Thessalonians 3:1-6) Timothy returned with more favorable tidings, reporting not only their progress in Christian faith and practice, but also their strong attachment to their old teacher. (1 Thessalonians 3:6-10) The First Epistle to the Thessalonians is the outpouring of the apostle's

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gratitude on receiving this welcome news. At the same time there report of Timothy was not unmixed with alloy. There were certain features in the condition of the Thessalonian church which called for St. Paul's interference and to which he addresses himself in his letter. •The very intensity of their Christian faith, dwelling too exclusively on the day of the Lord's coming, had been attended with evil consequences. On the other hand, a theoretical difficulty had been felt. Certain members of the church had died, and there was great anxiety lest they should be excluded from any share in the glories of the Lord's advent. ch. (1 Thessalonians 4:13-18) •The Thessalonians needed consolation and encouragement under persecution. ch. (1 Thessalonians 2:14; 3:2-4) •An unhealthy state of feeling with regard to spiritual gifts was manifesting itself. ch. (1 Thessalonians 6:19,20) •There was the danger of relapsing into their old heathen profligacy. ch. (1 Thessalonians 4:4-8) Yet notwithstanding all these drawbacks, the condition of the Thessalonian church was highly satisfactory, and the most cordial relations existed between St. Paul and his converts there. This honorable distinction it shares with the other great church of Macedonia, that of Philippi. The epistle is rather practical than doctrinal. The external evidence in favor of the genuineness of the First Epistle to the Thessalonians is chiefly negative, but this is important enough. There is no trace that it was ever disputed at any age or in any section of the Church, or even by any individual till the present century. Toward the close of the second century from Irenaeus downward. we find this epistle directly quoted and ascribed to Paul. The evidence derived from the character of the epistle itself is so strong that it may fairly be called irresistible. Thessalonians, Second Epistle To The

appears to have been written from Corinth not very long after the first, for Silvanus and Timotheus were still with St. Paul. (2 Thessalonians 1:1) In the former letter we saw chiefly the outpouring of strong personal affection, occasioned by the renewal of the apostle's intercourse with the Thessalonians, and the doctrinal and hortatory portions are there subordinate. In the Second Epistle, on the other hand, his leading motive seems to have been the desire of correcting errors in the church of Thessalonica. We notice two points especially which call for his rebuke:— First, it seems that the anxious expectation of the Lord's advent. Instead of subsiding, had gained ground since the writing of the First Epistle. Second, the apostle had also a personal ground of complaint. His authority was not denied by any, but it was tampered with, and an unauthorized use was made of his name. It will be seen that the teaching of the Second Epistle is corrective of or rather supplemental to that of the first, and therefore presupposes it. This epistle, in the range of subject as well as in style and general character closely resembles the first; and the remarks made on that epistle apply for the most part equally well to this. The structure is somewhat similar the main body of the epistle being divided into two parts in the same way, and each part closing with a prayer. ch. (2 Corinthians 2:16,17; 3:16) The epistle ends with a special direction and benediction. ch. (2 Corinthians 3:17,18) The external evidence in favor of the Second Epistle is somewhat more definite than that which can be brought in favor of the first. The internal character of the epistle too, as in the former case, bears the strongest testimony to its Pauline origin. Its genuineness, in fact, was never questioned until the beginning of the present century. Thessalonica

The original name of this city was Therma; and that part of the Macedonian shore on which it was situated retained through the Roman period the designation of the Thermaic Gulf. Cassander

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the son of Antipater rebuilt and enlarged Therma, and named it after his wife Thessalonica, the sister of Alexander the Great. The name ever since, under various slight modifications, has been continuous, and the city itself has never ceased to be eminent. Saloniki is still the most important town of European Turkey, next after Constantinople. Strabo in the first century speaks of Thessalonica as the most populous city in Macedonia. Visit of Paul .—St. Paul visited Thessalonica (with Silas and Timothy) during his second missionary journey, and introduced Christianity there. The first scene of the apostle's work at Thessalonica was the synagogue. (Acts 17:2,3) It is stated that the ministrations among the Jews continued for three weeks. ver. 2. Not that we are obliged to limit to this time the whole stay of the apostle at Thessalonica. A flourishing church was certainly formed there; and the epistles show that its elements were more Gentile than Jewish. [For persecution and further history see Paul] Circumstances which led Paul to Thessalonica .—Three circumstances must here be mentioned which illustrate in an important manner this visit and this journey as well as the two Epistles to the Thessalonians. •This was the chief station on the great Roman road called the Via Egnatia, which connected Rome with the whole region to the north of the AEgean Sea. •Placed as if was on this great road, and in connection with other important Roman ways. Thessalonica was an invaluable centre for the spread of the gospel. In fact it was nearly if not quite on a level with Corinth and Ephesus in its share of the commerce of the Levant. •The circumstance noted in (Acts 17:1) that here was the synagogue of the Jews in this part of Macedonia, had evidently much to do with the apostle's plans,and also doubtless with his success. Trade would inevitably bring Jews to Thessalonica; and it is remarkable that they have ever since had a prominent place in the annals of the city. Later ecclesiastical history .—During several centuries this city was the bulwark not simply of the later Greek empire, but of Oriental Christendom, and was largely instrumental in the conversion of the Slavonians and Bulgarians. Thus it received the designation of "the orthodox city;" and its struggles are very prominent in the writings of the Byzantine historians. Theudas

(God-given), the name of an insurgent mentioned in Gamaliel's speech before the Jewish council, (Acts 6:35-39) at the time of the arraignment of the apostles. He appeared, according to Luke's account, at the head of about four hundred men. He was probably one of the insurrectionary chiefs or fanatics by whom the land was overrun in the last year of Herod's reign. Josephus speaks of a Theudas who played a similar part in the time of Claudius, about A.D. 44; but the Theudas mentioned by St. Luke must be a different person from the one spoken of by Josephus. Thieves, The Two

The men who under this name appear in the history of the crucifixion were robbers rather than thieves, belonging to the lawless bands by which Palestine was at that time and afterward infested. Against these brigands every Roman procurator had to wage continual war. It was necessary to use an armed police to encounter them. (Luke 22:62) Of the previous history of the two who suffered on Golgotha we know nothing. They had been tried and condemned, and were waiting their execution before our Lord was accused. It is probable enough, as the death of Barabbas was clearly expected at the same time that they had taken part in his insurrection had expected to die with Jesus Barabbas. They find themselves with one who bore the same name, but who was described in the superscription on his cross as Jesus of Nazareth. They could hardly have failed to hear something of his fame as a prophet, of his triumphal entry as a king; They catch at first the prevailing tone of scorn. But over

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one of them there came a change. He looked back upon his past life, and saw an infinite evil. He looked to the man dying on the cross beside him, and saw an infinite compassion. There indeed was one unlike all other "kings of the Jews" whom the robber had ever known. Such a one must be all that he had claimed to be. To be forgotten by that king seems to him now the most terrible of all punishments; to take part in the triumph of his return, the most blessed of all hopes. The yearning prayer was answered, not in the letter, but in the spirit. Thimnathah

a town in the allotment of Dan. (Joshua 19:43) only. It is named between Elon and Ekron. The name is the same as that of the residence of Samson's wife. [See Timna, Or Timnah, Timnah] Thistle

[Thorns AND THISTLES] Thomas

(a twin), one of the apostles. According to Eusebius, his real name was Judas. This may have been a mere confusion with Thaddeus, who is mentioned in the extract. But it may also be that; Thomas was a surname. Out of this name has grown the tradition that he had a twin-sister, Lydia, or that he was a twin-brother of our Lord; which last, again, would confirm his identification with Judas. Comp. (Matthew 13:55) He is said to have been born at Antioch. In the catalogue of the apostles he is coupled with Matthew in (Matthew 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15) and with Philip in (Acts 1:13) All that we know of him is derived from the Gospel of St. John; and this amounts to three traits, which, however, so exactly agree together that, slight as they are they place his character before us with a precision which belongs to no other of the twelve apostles except Peter, John and Judas Iscariot. This character is that of a man slow to believe, seeing all the difficulties of a case, subject to despondency, viewing things on the darker side, yet full of ardent love of his Master. The latter trait was shown in his speech when our Lord determined to face the dangers that awaited him in Judea on his journey to Bethany. Thomas said to his fellow disciples, "Let us also go, that we may die with him." (John 11:16) His unbelief appeared in his question during the Last Supper: "Thomas saith unto him Lord we know not whither thou goest, and how can we: know the way?" (John 14:5) It was the prosaic, incredulous doubt as to moving a step in the unseen future, and yet an eager inquiry as to how this step was to be taken. The first-named trait was seen after the resurrection. He was absent—possibly by accident, perhaps characteristically—from the first assembly when Jesus had appeared. The others told him what they had seen. He broke forth into an exclamation, the terms of which convey to us at once the vehemence of his doubt, and at the same time the vivid picture that his mind retained of his Master's form as he had last seen him lifeless on the cross. (John 20:25) On the eighth day he was with them st their gathering, perhaps in expectation of a recurrence of the visit of the previous week; and Jesus stood among them. He uttered the same salutation, "Peace be unto you;" and then turning to Thomas, as if this had been the special object of his appearance, uttered the words which convey as strongly the sense of condemnation and tender reproof as those of Thomas had shown the sense of hesitation and doubt. The effect on him was immediate. The conviction produced by the removal of his doubt became deeper and stronger than that of any of the other apostles. The words in which he expressed his belief contain a far higher assertion of his Master's divine nature than is contained in any other expression used by apostolic lips—"My Lord and my God." The answer of our Lord sums up the moral of the whole narrative: "Because thou hast seen me, thou hast believed: blessed are they that have not seen me, and yet have-believed." (John 20:29) In the New Testament we hear of Thomas

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only twice again, once on the Sea of Galilee with the seven disciples, where he is ranked next after Peter, (John 21:2) and again in the assemblage of the apostles after the ascension. (Acts 1:13) The earlier traditions, as believed in the fourth century, represent him as preaching in Parthia or Persia, and as finally buried at Edessa. The later traditions carry him farther east, His martyrdom whether in Persia or India, is said to have been occasioned by a lance, and is commemorated by the Latin Church on December 21 the Greek Church on October 6, and by the Indians on July 1. Thorns

and Thistles. There appear to be eighteen or twenty Hebrew words which point to different kinds of prickly or thorny shrubs. These words are variously rendered in the Authorized Version By "thorns," "briers," "thistles," etc. Palestine abounded in a great variety of such plants. ("Travellers call the holy land 'a land of thorns.' Giant thistles, growing to the height of a man on horseback, frequently spread over regions once rich and fruitful, as they do on the pampas of South America; and many of the most interesting historic spats and ruins are rendered almost inaccessible by thickets of fiercely-armed buckthorns. Entire fields are covered with the troublesome creeping stems of the spinous ononis, while the bare hillsides are studded with the dangerous capsules of the puliuris and tribulus . Roses of the most prickly kinds abound on the lower slopes of Hermon; while the sub-tropical valleys of Judea are choked up in many places by the thorny lycium ."— Biblical Things not generally Known.) Crown of thorns.—The crown which was put in derision upon our Lord's head before his crucifixion, is by some supposed to have been the Rhamnus, or Spina Christi ; but although abundant in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, it cannot be the plant intended, because its thorns are so strong and large that it could not have been woven into a wreath. The large-leaved acanthus (bear's-foot) is totally unsuited for the purpose. Had the acacia been intended, as some suppose, the phrase would have been ex akanthes . Obviously some small, flexile, thorny shrub is meant; perhaps Cappares spinosae . Hasselquist ("Travels," p. 260) says that the thorn used was the Arabian nabk . "It was very suitable for their purpose, as it has many sharp thorns, which inflict painful wounds; and its flexible, pliant and round branches might easily be plaited in the form of a crown." It also resembles the rich dark crown green of the triumphal ivy-wreath, which would give additional pungency to its ironical purpose. Three Taverns

A station on the Appian Road, along which St. Paul travelled from Puteoli to Rome. (Acts 28:15) The distances, reckoning southward from Rome are given as follows in the Antonine Itinerary: "to Aricia, 16 miles; to Three Taverns, 17 miles; to Appii Forum, 10 miles;" and, comparing this with what is still observed along the line of road, we have no difficulty in coming to the conclusion that "Three Taverns" was near the modern Cisterna . Just at this point a road came in from Antium on the coast. There is no doubt that "Three Taverns" was a frequent meeting-place of travellers. Threshing

[Agriculture] Threshold

Of the two words so rendered is the Authorized Version, one,miphthan,,seems to mean sometimes a projecting beam or corbel. (Ezekiel 9:3; 10:4,18) Thresholds, The

This word, Asuppe, appears to be inaccurately rendered in (Nehemiah 12:25) though its real force has perhaps not yet been discovered. The "house of Asuppim," or simply "the Asuppim," is mentioned in (1 Chronicles 26:15,17) as a part, probably a gate of the enclosure of the "house of

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Jehovah," apparently at its southwest corner. The allusion in (Nehemiah 12:29) is undoubtedly to the same place. [Gate] Throne

The Hebrew word so translated applies to any elevated seat occupied by a person in authority, whether a high priest, (1 Samuel 1:9) a judge, (Psalms 122:5) or a military chief (Jeremiah 1:16) The use of a chair in a country where the usual postures were squatting and reclining was at all times regarded as a symbol of dignity. (2 Kings 4:10; Proverbs 9:14) In order to specify a throne in our sense of the term, it was necessary to add to the word the notion of royalty; hence the frequent occurrence of such expressions as "throne of the kingdom." (17:18; 1 Kings 1:46; 2 Chronicles 7:18) The characteristic feature in the royal throne was its elevation: Solomon's throne was approached by six steps, (1 Kings 10:19; 2 Chronicles 9:18) and Jehovah's throne is described as "high and lifted up." (Isaiah 6:1) The materials and workmanship of Solomon's throne were costly. It was made of wood inlaid with ivory and then covered with gold except where the ivory showed. It was furnished with arms or "stays." The steps were also lines with pairs of lions. As to the form of chair, we are only informed in (1 Kings 10:19) that "the top was round behind." The king sat on his throne on state occasions. At such times he appeared in his royal robes. The throne was the symbol of supreme power and dignity. (Genesis 41:40) Similarly, "to sit upon the throne" implied the exercise of regal power. (17:18; 1 Kings 16:11) Thuhash

(badger), son of Nahor by his concubine Reumah. (Genesis 22:24) (B.C. 1880.) Thummim

[Urim And Thummim AND THUMMIM] Thunder

is hardly ever heard in Palestine form the middle of April to the middle of September; hence it was selected by Samuel as a striking expression of the divine displeasure toward the Israelites. (1 Samuel 12:17) Rain in harvest was deemed as extraordinary as snow in summer, (Proverbs 26:1) and Jerome states that he had never witnessed it in the latter part of June or in July. Comm. on (Amos 4:7) In the imaginative philosophy of the Hebrews, thunder was regarded as the voice of Jehovah, (Job 37:2,4,5; 40:9; Psalms 18:13; 29:3-9; Isaiah 30:30,31) who dwelt behind the thunder-cloud. (Psalms 81:7) Thunder was, to the mind of the Jew, the symbol of divine power (Psalms 29:3) etc., and vengeance. (1 Samuel 2:10; 2 Samuel 22:14) Thyatira

a city on the Lycus, founded by Seleucus Nicator, lay to the left of the road from Pergamos to Sardis, 27 miles from the latter city, and on the very confines of Mysia and Ionia, so as to be sometimes reckoned within the one and sometimes within the other. Dyeing apparently formed an important part of the industrial activity of Thyatira, as it did of that of Colossae and Laodicea. It is first mentioned in connection with Lydia, "a seller of purple." (Acts 16:14) One of the Seven Churches of Asia was established here. (Revelation 2:18-29) The principal deity of the city was Apollo; but there was another superstition, of an extremely curious nature which seems to have been brought thither by some of the corrupted Jews of the dispersed tribes. A fane stood outside the walls, dedicated to Sambatha—the name of the sibyl who is sometimes called Chaldean, sometimes Jewish, sometimes Persian— in the midst of an enclosure designated "the Chaldaeans' court." This seems to lend an illustration to the obscure passage in (Revelation 2:20,21) which some interpret of the wife of the bishop. Now there is evidence to show that in Thyatira there was

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a great amalgamation of races. If the sibyl Sambatha was in reality a Jewess, lending her aid to the amalgamation of different religions, and not discountenanced by the authorities of the Judeo-Christian Church at Thyatira, both the censure and its qualification become easy of explanation. (The present name of the city is ak-Hissar ("white castle"). It has a reputation for the manufacture of scarlet cloth. Its present population is 15,000 to 20,000. There are nine mosques.—ED.) Thyine Wood

occurs in (Revelation 18:12) where the margin has "sweet" (wood). There can be little doubt that the wood here spoken of is that of the Thuya articulata, Desfont the Callitris quadrivalvis of present botanists. It is a cone bearing tree and allied to the pine. This tree was much prized by Greeks and Romans on account of the beauty of its wood for various ornamental purposes. By the Romans the tree was called citrus, the wood citrum . It is a native of Barbary, and grows to the height of 15 to 25 feet. Tiberias

a city in the time of Christ, on the Sea of Galilee; first mentioned in the New Testament, (John 6:1,23; 21:1) and then by Josephus, who states that it was built by Herod Antipas, and was named by him in honor of the emperor Tiberius. Tiberias was the capital of Galilee from the time of its origin until the reign of Herod Agrippa II., who changed the seat of power back again to Sepphoris, where it had been before the founding of the new city. Many of the inhabitants were Greeks and Romans, and foreign customs prevailed there: to such an extent as to give offence to the stricter Jews. It is remarkable that the Gospels give us no information that the Saviour who spent so much of his public life in Galilee, ever visited Tiberias. The place is only mentioned in the New Testament in (John 6:23) History .—Tiberias has an interesting history apart from its strictly biblical associations. It bore a conspicuous part in the wars between the Jews and the Romans. The Sanhedrin, subsequent to the fall of Jerusalem, after a temporary sojourn at Jamnia and Sepphoris, became fixed there about the middle of the second century. Celebrated schools of Jewish learning flourished there through a succession of several centuries. The Mishna was compiled at this place by the great Rabbi Judah Hakkodesh, A.D. 190. The city has been possessed successively by Romans, Persians Arabs and Turks. It contains now, under the Turkish rule, a mixed population of Mohammedans, Jews and Christian, variously estimated at from two to four thousand. Present city .—The ancient name has survived in that of the modern Tubarieh, which occupies the original site. Near Tubarieh, about a mile farther south along the shore, are the celebrated warm baths, which the Roman naturalists reckoned among the greatest known curiosities of the world. Tiberias is described by Dr. Thomson as "a filthy place, fearfully hot in summer." It was nearly destroyed in 1837 by an earthquake, by which 800 persons lost their lives. Tiberias, The Sea Of

(John 21:1) [Gennesaret, Sea Of, SEA OF] Tiberius

(in full, Tiberius Claudius Nero), the second Roman emperor, successor of Augustus, who began to reign A.D. 14 and reigned until A.D. 37. He was the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia, and hence a stepson of Augustus. He was born at Rome on the 18th of November, B.C. 45. He became emperor in his fifty-fifth year, after having distinguished himself as a commander in various wars, and having evinced talents of a high order as an orator and an administrator of civil affairs. He even gained the reputation of possessing the sterner virtues of the Roman character, and was regarded as entirely worthy of the imperial honors to which his birth and supposed personal

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merits at length opened the way. Yet, on being raised to the supreme power, he suddenly became, or showed himself to be a very different man. His subsequent life was one of inactivity, sloth and self-indulgence. He was despotic in his government, cruel and vindictive in his disposition. He died A.D. 37, at the age of 78, after a reign of twenty-three years. Our Saviour was put to death in the reign of Tiberius. Tibhath

(extension), a city of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, (1 Chronicles 18:8) which in 2Sam 8:8 Is called Betah. Its exact Position is unknown. Tibni

(intelligent). After Zimri had burnt himself in his palace, there was a division in the northern kingdom, half of the people following Tibni the son of Ginath, and half following Omri. (1 Kings 16:21,22) Omri was the choice of the army Tibni was probably put forward by the people of Tirzah, which was then besieged by Omri and his host. The struggle between the contending factions lasted four years (comp.) (1 Kings 16:16,23) (B.C. 926-922.), when-Tibni died. Tidal

(great son) is mentioned only in (Genesis 14:1,9) (B.C. about 1900.) He is called "king of nations," from which we may conclude that he was a chief over various nomadic tribes who inhabited different portions of Mesopotamia at different seasons of the year, as do the Arabs at the present day. Tiglathpileser

(In (1 Chronicles 5:26) and again in 2Chr 28:20 The name of this king is given as TIGLATH-PILNESER.) Tiglath-pileser is the second Assyrian king mentioned in Scripture as having come into contact with the Israelites. He attacked Samaria in the reign of Pekah, B.C. 756-736. probably because Pekah withheld his tribute, and having entered his territories, he "took Ijon, and Abel-beth-maachah and Janoah and Kedesh, and Hazer, and Gilead, and Galilee, and all the land of Naphtali, and carried them captive to Assyria." (2 Kings 15:29) The date of this invasion cannot be fixed. After his first expedition a close league was formed between Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, having for its special object the humiliation of Judah. At first great successes were gained by Pekah and his confederate, (2 Kings 15:37; 2 Chronicles 28:6-8) but on their proceeding to attack Jerusalem itself, Ahaz applied to Assyria for assistance, and Tiglath-pileser, consenting to aid him, again appeared at the head of an army in these regions. He first marched, naturally, against Damascus. which he took, (2 Kings 16:9) razing it to the ground, and killing Rezin, the Damascene monarch. After this, probably, he proceeded to chastise Pekah, whose country he entered on the northeast, where it bordered upon "Syria of Damascus." Here he overran the whole district to the east of Jordan, carrying into captivity "the Reubenites, the Gadites and the half tribe of Manasseh," (1 Chronicles 5:26) Before returning into his own land, Tiglath pileser had an interview with Ahaz at Damascus. (2 Kings 16:10) This is all that Scripture tells us of Tiglath-pileser. He reigned certainly from B.C. 747 to B.C. 730, and possibly a few years longer, being succeeded by Shalmaneser at least as early as B.C. 785, Tiglath-pileser's wars do not generally, appear to have been of much importance. No palace or great building can be ascribed to this king. His slabs, which are tolerably numerous show that he must have built or adorned a residence at Calah (Nimrud), where they were found. Tigris

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is used by the LXX. as the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew Hiddekel, and occurs also in several of the apocryphal books, as in Tobit, ch. 6:1, Judith, ch. 1:6, and Ecclesiasticus, ch. 24:25. The Tigris, like the Euphrates, rises from two principal sources in the Armenian mountains, and flows into the Euphrates. Its length, exclusive of windings, is reckoned at 1146 miles. It receives, along its middle and lower course no fewer than five important tributaries. These are the river of Zakko or eastern Khabour, the Great Zab (Zab Ala), the Lesser Zab (Zab Asfal), the Adhem, and the Diyaleh or ancient Gyndes. All these rivers flow from the high range of Zagros. We find but little mention of the Tigris in Scripture. It appears, indeed, under the name of Hiddekel, among the rivers of Eden, (Genesis 2:14) and is there correctly described as "running eastward to Assyria;" but after this we hear no more of it, if we accept one doubtful allusion in Nahum (Nahum 2:6) until the captivity, when it becomes well known to the prophet Daniel. With him it is "the Great River." The Tigris, in its upper course, anciently ran through Armenia and Assyria. Tikvah

(hope). •The father of Shallum the husband of the prophetess Huldah. (2 Kings 22:14) (B.C. before 632.) •The father of Jahaziah. (Ezra 10:15) Tikvath

(assemblage) (properly Tokehath or Tokhath), Tikvah the father of Shallum. (2 Chronicles 34:22) Tilgathpilneser

a variation, and probably a corruption, of the name Tiglath-pileser. (1 Chronicles 5:6,26; 2 Chronicles 28:20) Tilon

(gift), one of the four sons of Shimon, whose family is reckoned in the genealogies of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:20) (B.C. 1451.) Timaeus

the father of the blind man, Bartimaus. (Mark 10:46) Timbrel, Tabret

(Heb. toph). In old English tabor was used for any drum. Tabouret and tambourine are diminutives of tabor, and denote the instrument now known as the tambourine. Tabret is a contraction of tabouret. The Hebrew toph is undoubtedly the instrument described by travellers as the duff or diff of the Arabs. It was played principally by women, (Exodus 15:20; Judges 11:34; 1 Samuel 18:6; Psalms 68:25) as an accompaniment to the song and dance. The diff of the Arabs is described by Russell as "a hoop (sometimes with pieces of brass fixed in it to make a jingling) over which a piece of parchment is stretched. It is beaten with the fingers, and is the true tympanum of the ancients." In Barbary it is called tar . Timna, Or Timnah

(restraint). •A concubine of Eliphaz son of Esau, and mother of Amalek (Genesis 36:12) it may be presumed that she was the same as Timna sister of Lotan. Ibid. ver. 22, and (1 Chronicles 1:39) (B.C. after 1800.) •A duke or phylarch of Edom in the last list in (Genesis 36:40-43; 1 Chronicles 1:51-54) Timnah was probably the name of a place or a district. [See the following article] Timnah

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(portion). •A place which formed one of the landmarks on the north boundary of the allotment of Judah. (Joshua 15:10) It is probably identical with the Thimnathah of (Joshua 19:43) and that again with the Timnath, or, more accurately, Timnathah, of Samson (Judges 14:1,2,5) and the Thamnatha of the Maccabees. The modern representative of all these various forms of the same name is probably Tibneh, a village about two miles west of Ain Shems (Beth-shemesh). In the later history of the Jews, Timnah must have been a conspicuous place. It was fortified by Bacchides as one of the most important military posts of Judea. 1 Macc. 9:50. •A town in the mountain district of Judah. (Joshua 15:57) A distinct place from that just examined. •Inaccurately written Timnath in the Authorized Version, the scene of the adventure of Judah with his daughter in-law Tamar. (Genesis 38:12,13,14) There is nothing here to indicate its position. It may be identified either with the Timnah in the mountains of Judah No. 23 or with the Timnathath of Samson [No. 1]. Timnath

[Timna, Or Timnah, Timnah] Timnathah

the residence of Samson's wife. (Judges 14:1,2,5) Timnathheres

(portion of the sun) the name under which the city and burial-place of Joshua, previously called Timnath-serah is mentioned in (Judges 2:9) [TIMNATH-GERAH] Timnathserah

(portion of abundance), the name of the city which was presented to Joshua after the partition of the country, (Joshua 19:50) and in "the border" of which he was buried. (Joshua 24:30) It is specified as "in Mount Ephraim on the north side of Mount Gaash." In (Judges 2:9) the name is altered to TIMNATH-HERES. The latter form is that adopted by the Jewish writers. Accordingly, they identify the place with Kefar-cheres, which is said by Jewish travellers to be about five miles south of Shechem (Nablus). No place with that name appears on the maps. Another identification has, however been suggested by Dr. Eli Smith. In his journey from Jifna to Mejdel-Yaba, about six miles from the former he discovered the ruins of a considerable town. Opposite the town was a much higher hill, in the north side of which are several excavated sepulchres. The whole bears the name of Tibneh . Timnite, The

Samson's father-in-law, a native of Timnathah. (Judges 15:6) Timon

one of the seven, commonly called "deacons." (Acts 6:1-6) He was probably a Hellenist. (A.D. 34.) Timotheus

A "captain of the Ammonites," 1 Macc. 5:6 who was defeated on several occasions by Judas Maccabaeus, B.C. 164. 1 Macc. 5:6,11,34-44. He was probably a Greek adventurer. •

•In 2 Macc. a leader named Timetheus is mentioned as having taken part in the invasion of Nicanor, B.C. 166. 2 Macc. 8:30; 9:3. •The Greek name of Timothy. (Acts 16:1; 17:14) etc. Timothy

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The disciple thus named was the son of one of those mixed marriages which, though condemned by stricter Jewish opinion were yet not uncommon in the later periods of Jewish history. The father's name is unknown; he was a Greek, i.e. a Gentile, by descent. (Acts 16:1,3) The absence of any personal allusion to the father in the Acts or Epistles suggests the inference that he must have died or disappeared during his son's infancy. The care of the boy thus devolved upon his mother Eunice and her mother Lois. (2 Timothy 1:5) Under their training his education was emphatically Jewish. "From a child" he learned to "know the Holy Scriptures" daily. The language of the Acts leaves it uncertain whether Lystra or Derbe was the residence of the devout family. The arrival of Paul and Barnabas in Lycaonia, A.D. 44, (Acts 14:6) brought the message of glad tidings to Timothy and his mother, and they received it with "unfeigned faith." (2 Timothy 1:5) During the interval of seven years between the apostle's first and second journeys the boy grew up to manhood. Those who had the deepest insight into character, and spoke with a prophetic utterance, pointed to him, (1 Timothy 1:18; 4:14) as others had pointed before to Paul and Barnabas, (Acts 13:2) as specially fit for the missionary work in which the apostle was engaged. Personal feeling led St. Paul to the same conclusion, (Acts 16:3) and he was solemnly set apart to do the work and possibly to bear the title of evangelist. (1 Timothy 4:14; 2 Timothy 1:6; 4:5) A great obstacle, however, presented itself. Timothy, though reckoned as one of the seed of Abraham, had been allowed to grow up to the age of manhood without the sign of circumcision. With a special view to the feelings of the Jews making no sacrifice of principle, the apostle, who had refused to permit the circumcision of Titus, "took and circumcised" Timothy. (Acts 16:3) Henceforth Timothy was one of his most constant companions. They and Silvanus, and probably Luke also, journeyed to Philippi, (Acts 16:12) and there the young evangelist was conspicuous at once for his filial devotion and his zeal. (Philemon 2:22) His name does not appear in the account of St. Paul's work at Thessalonica, and it is possible that he remained some time at Philippi. He appears, however, at Berea, and remains there when Paul and Silas are obliged to leave, (Acts 17:14) going afterward to join his master at Athens. (1 Thessalonians 3:2) From Athens he is sent back to Thessalonica, ibid., as having special gifts for comforting and teaching. He returns from Thessalonica, not to Athens, but to Corinth, and his name appears united with St. Paul's in the opening words of both the letters written from that city to the Thessalonians, (1 Thessalonians 1:1; 2 Thessalonians 1:1) Of the next five years of his life we have no record. When we next meet with him, it is as being sent on in advance when the apostle was contemplating the long journey which was to include Macedonia, Achaia, Jerusalem and Rome. (Acts 19:22) It is probable that he returned by the same route and met St. Paul according to a previous arrangement, (1 Corinthians 16:11) and was thus with him when the Second Epistle was written to the church of Corinth. (2 Corinthians 1:1) He returns with the apostle to that city, and joins in messages of greeting to the disciples whom he had known personally at Corinth, and who had since found their way to Rome. (Romans 16:21) He forms one of the company of friends who go with St. Paul to Philippi, and then sail by themselves, waiting for his arrival by a different ship. (Acts 20:3-6) The absence of his name from (Acts 27:1) ... leads to the conclusion that he did not share in the perilous voyage to Italy. He must have joined the apostle, however, apparently soon after his arrival at Rome, and was with him when the Epistles to the Philippians, to the Colossians and to Philemon were written. (Philemon 1:1; 2:19; Colossians 1:1) Phil. ver. 1. All the indications of this period point to incessant missionary activity. From the two Epistles addressed to Timothy we are able to put together a few notices as to his later from (1 Timothy 1:3) that he and his master after the release of the latter from his imprisonment, A.D. 63, revisited proconsular

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Asia; that the apostle then continued his Journey to Macedonia, while the disciple remained, half reluctantly, even weeping at the separation, (2 Timothy 1:4) at Ephesus, to check, if possible, the outgrowth of heresy and licentiousness which had sprung up there. The position in which he found himself might well make him anxious. He used to rule presbyters most of whom were older than himself (1 Timothy 4:12) Leaders of rival sects were there. The name of his beloved teacher was no longer honored as it had been. We cannot wonder that the apostle, knowing these trials should be full of anxiety and fear for his disciple's steadfastness. In the Second Epistle to him, A.D. 67 or 68, this deep personal feeling utters itself yet more fully. The last recorded words of the apostle express the earnest hope, repented yet more earnestly, that he might see him once again. (2 Timothy 4:9,21) We may hazard the conjecture that he reached him in time, and that the last hours of the teacher were soothed by the presence of the disciple whom he loved so truly. Some writers have seen in (Hebrews 13:23) an indication that he even shared St. Paul's imprisonment, and was released from it by the death of Nero. Beyond this all is apocryphal and uncertain. He continued, according to the old traditions, to act as bishop of Ephesus, and died a martyr's death under Domitian or Nerva. A somewhat startling theory as to the intervening period of his life has found favor with some. If he continued, according to the received tradition, to be bishop of Ephesus, then he, and no other, must have been the "angel" of the church of Ephesus to whom the message of (Revelation 2:1-7) was addressed. Timothy, Epistles Of Paul To

The Epistles to Timothy and Titus are called the Pastoral Epistles, because they are principally devoted to directions about the work of the pastor of a church. The First Epistle was probably written from Macedonia, A.D. 65, in the interval between St. Paul's first and second imprisonments at Rome. The absence of any local reference but that in (1 Timothy 1:3) suggests Macedonia or some neighboring district. In some MSS. and versions Laodicea is named in the inscription as the place from which it was sent. The Second Epistle appears to have been written A.D. 67 or 68, and in all probability at Rome. The following are the characteristic features of these epistles:— (1) The ever-deepening sense in St. Paul's heart of the divine mercy of which he was the object, as shown in the insertion of the "mercy" in the salutations of both epistles, and in the "obtained mercy" of (1 Timothy 1:13) (2) The greater abruptness of the Second Epistle. From first to last there is no plan, no treatment of subjects carefully thought out. All speaks of strong overflowing emotion memories of the past, anxieties about the future. (3) The absence, as compared with St. Paul other epistles, of Old Testament references. This may connect itself with the fact just noticed, that these epistles are not argumentative, possibly also with the request for the "books and parchments" which had been left behind. (2 Timothy 4:13) (4) The conspicuous position of the "faithful sayings" as taking the place occupied in other epistles by the Old Testament Scriptures. The way in which these are cited as authoritative, the variety of subjects which they cover, suggests the thought that in them we have specimens of the prophecies of the apostolic Church which had most impressed themselves on the mind of the apostle and of the disciples generally. (1 Corinthians 14:1) ... shows how deep a reverence he was likely to feel for spiritual utterances. In (1 Timothy 4:1) we have a distinct reference to them. (5) The tendency of the apostle's mind to dwell more on the universality of the redemptive work of Christ, (1 Timothy 2:3-6; 4:10) and his strong desire that all the teaching of his disciples should be "sound." (6) The importance attached by him to the practical details of administration. The gathered experience of a long life had taught him that the life and well being of the Church required these for its safeguards. (7) The recurrence of doxologies, (1 Timothy 1:17;

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6:15,16; 2 Timothy 4:18) as from one living perpetually in the presence of God, to whom the language of adoration was as his natural speech. Tin

Among the various metals found in the spoils of the Midianites, tin is enumerated. (Numbers 31:22) It was known to the Hebrew metal-workers as an alloy of other metals. (Isaiah 1:25; Ezekiel 22:18,20) The markets of Tyre were supplied with it by the ships of Tarshish. (Ezekiel 27:12) It was used for plummets, (Zechariah 4:10) and was so plentiful as to furnish the writer of Ecclesiasticus, Ecclus. 47:18, with a figure by which to express the wealth of Solomon. Tin is not found in Palestine. Whence, then. did the ancient Hebrews obtain their supply "Only three countries are known to contain any considerable quantity of it: Spain and Portugal, Cornwall and the adjacent parts of Devonshire, and the islands of Junk, Ceylon and Banca, in the Straits of Malacca." (Kenrick, "Phoenicia," p. 212.) There call be little doubt that the mines of Britain were the chief source of supply to the ancient world, [See Tarshish] ("Tin ore has lately been found in Midian."—Schaff.) Tiphsah

(ford) is mentioned in (1 Kings 4:24) as the limit of Solomon's empire toward the Euphrates and in (2 Kings 15:16) it is said to have been attacked by Menahemi. It was known to the Greeks and Romans under the name of Thapsacus, and was the point where it was usual to cross the Euphrates. Thapsacus has been generally placed at the modern Deir ; but the Euphrates expedition proved that there is no ford at Deir, and that the only ford in this part of the course of the Euphrates is at Suriyeh, 45 miles below Balis, and 165 above Deir . This, then, must have been the position of Thapsacus. Tirathites, The

one of the three families of scribes residing at Jabez, (1 Chronicles 2:55) the others being the Shimeathites and Sucathites. The passage is hopelessly obscure. Tire

an old English word for headdress. It was an ornamental headdress worn on festive occasions, (Ezekiel 24:17,23) and perhaps, as some suppose, also an ornament for the neck worn by both women, (Isaiah 3:18) and men, and even on the necks of camels. (Judges 8:21,26) Tirhakah, Or Tirhakah

(exalted?) king of Ethiopia (Cush), the opponent of Sennacherib. (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9) He may be identified with Tarkos or Tarakos, who was the third and last king of the twenty-fifth dynasty, which was of Ethiopians. His accession was probably about B.C. 695. Possibly Tirhakah ruled over Ethiopia before becoming king of Egypt. Tirhanah

(favor), son of Caleb ben-Hezron by his concubine Maachah. (1 Chronicles 2:48) (B.C. about 1451.) Tiria

(fear), son of Jehaleleel, of the tribe of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:16) (B.C. about 1451.) Tirras

(desire), the youngest son of Japheth, (Genesis 10:2) usually identified with the Thracians, as presenting the closest verbal approximation to the name. Tirshatha

(always written with the article), the title of the governor of Judea under the Persians, perhaps derived from a Persian root signifying stern, severe, is added as a title after the name of Nehemiah,

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(Nehemiah 8:9; 10:1) and occurs also in three other places. In the margin of the Authorized Version (Ezra 2:63; Nehemiah 7:65; 10:1) it is rendered "governor." Tirzah

an ancient Canaanite city, whose king is enumerated among those overthrown in the conquest of the country. (Joshua 12:24) It reappears as a royal city, the residence of Jeroboam and of his successors, (1 Kings 14:17,18) and as the seat of the conspiracy of Menahem ben-Gaddi against the wretched Shallum. (2 Kings 15:16) Its reputation for beauty throughout the country must have been widespread. It is in this sense that it is spoken of in the Song of Solomon. Eusebius mentions it in connection with Menahem, and identifies it with a "village of Samaritans in Batanea." Its site is Telluzah, a place in the mountains north of Nablus .

(delight), youngest of the five daughters of Zelophehad. (Numbers 26:33; 27:1; 36:11; Joshua 17:3) (B.C. 1450.) Tishbite, The

the well-known designation of Elijah. (1 Kings 17:1; 21:17,28; 2 Kings 1:3,8; 9:36) The name naturally points to a place called Tishbeh, Tishbi, or rather perhaps Tesheb, as the residence of the prophet. Assuming that a town is alluded to as Elijah's native place, it is not necessary to infer that it was itself in Gilead, as many have imagined. The commentators and lexicographers, with few exceptions, adopt the name "Tishbite" as referring to the place Thisbe in Naphtali which is found in the Septuagint text of Tobit 1:2. Tithe Or Tenth

the proportion of property devoted to religious uses from very early times. Instances of the use of tithes are found prior to the appointment of the Levitical tithes under the law. In biblical history the two prominent instances are— •Abram presenting the tenth of all his property, or rather of the spoils of his victory, to Melchizedek. (Genesis 14:20; Hebrews 7:2,6) •Jacob, after his vision at Luz, devoting a tenth of all his property to God in case he should return home in safety (Genesis 28:22) The first enactment of the law in respect of tithe is the declaration that the tenth of all produce, as well as of flocks and cattle belongs to Jehovah and must be offered to him that the tithe was to be paid in kind, or, if redeemed, with an addition of one fifth to its value. (Leviticus 27:30-33) This tenth is ordered to be assigned to the Levites as the reward of their service, and it is ordered further that they are themselves to dedicate to the Lord a tenth of these receipts, which is to be devoted to the maintenance of the high priest. (Numbers 18:21-28) This legislation is modified or extended in the book of Deuteronomy, i.e. from thirty-eight to forty years later. Commands are given to the people— •To bring their tithes, together with their votive and other offerings and first-fruits, to the chosen centre of worship, the metropolis, there to be eaten in festive celebration in company with their children their servants and the Levites. (12:5-18) •All the produce of the soil was to be tithed every and these tithes with the firstlings of the flock and herd, were to be eaten in the metropolis. •But in case of distance, permission is given to convert the produce into money, which is to be taken to the appointed place, and there laid out in the purchase of food for a festal celebration, in which the Levite is, by special command, to be included. (14:22-27)

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•Then follows the direction that at the end of three years all the tithe of that year is to be gathered and laid up "within the gates" and that a festival is to be held of which the stranger, the fatherless and the widow together with the Levite, are to partake. Ibid. (5:28,29) •Lastly it is ordered that after taking the tithe in each third year, "which is the year of tithing," an exculpatory declaration is to be made by every Israelite that he has done his best to fulfill the divine command, (26:12-14) From all this we gather— (1) That one tenth of the whole produce of the soil was to be assigned for the maintenance of the Levites. (2) That out of this the Levites were to dedicate a tenth to God for the use of the high priest. (3) That a tithe, in all probability a second tithe, was to be applied to festival purposes. (4) That in every third year, either this festival tithe or a third tenth was to be eaten in company with the poor and the Levites. (These tithes in early times took the place of our modern taxes, us well as of gifts for the support of religious institutions.—ED.) Titus

Our materials for the biography of this companion of St. Paul must be drawn entirely from the notices of him in the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, the Galatians, and to Titus himself, combined with the Second Epistle to Timothy. He is not mentioned in the Acts at all. Taking the passages in the epistles in the chronological order of the events referred to, we turn first to (Galatians 2:1,3) We conceive the journey mentioned here to be identical with that (recorded in Acts 15) in which Paul and Barnabas went from Antioch to Jerusalem to the conference which was to decide the question of the necessity of circumcision to the Gentiles. Here we see Titus in close association with Paul and Barnabas at Antioch. He goes with them to Jerusalem. His circumcision was either not insisted on at Jerusalem, or, if demanded, was firmly resisted. He is very emphatically spoken of as a Gentile by which is most probably meant that both his parents were Gentiles. Titus would seem on the occasion of the council to have been specially a representative of the church of the uncircumcision. It is to our purpose to remark that, in the passage cited above, Titus is so mentioned as apparently to imply that he had become personally known to the Galatian Christians. After leaving Galatia., (Acts 18:23) and spending a long time at Ephesus, (Acts 19:1; 20:1) the apostle proceeded to Macedonia by way of Troas. Here he expected to meet Titus, (2 Corinthians 2:13) who had been sent on a mission to Corinth. In this hope he was disappointed, but in Macedonia Titus joined him. (2 Corinthians 7:6,7,13-15) The mission to Corinth had reference to the immoralities rebuked in the First Epistle, and to the collection at that time in progress, for the poor Christians of Judea. (2 Corinthians 8:6) Thus we are prepared for what the apostle now proceeds to do after his encouraging conversations with Titus regarding the Corinthian church. He sends him back from Macedonia to Corinth, in company with two other trustworthy Christians, bearing the Second Epistle, and with an earnest request, ibid. (2 Corinthians 8:6,17) that he would see to the completion of the collection. ch. (2 Corinthians 8:6) A considerable interval now elapses before we come upon the next notices of this disciple. St. Paul's first imprisonment is concluded, and his last trial is impending. In the interval between the two, he and Titus were together in Crete. (Titus 1:5) We see Titus remaining in the island when St. Paul left it and receiving there a letter written to him by the apostle. From this letter we gather the following biographical details. In the first place we learn that he was originally converted through St. Paul's instrumentality. (Titus 1:4) Next we learn the various particulars of the responsible duties which he had to discharge. In Crete, he is to complete what St. Paul had been obliged to leave unfinished, ch. (Titus 1:5) and he is to organize the church throughout the island by appointing presbytery in every city. Next he is to control and

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bridle, ver. 11, the restless and mischievous Judaizers. He is also to look for the arrival in Crete of Artemas and Tychicus, ch. (Titus 3:12) and then is to hasten to join St. Paul at Nicopolis, where the apostle purposes to pass the winter. Zenas and Apollos are in Crete, or expected there; for Titus is to send them on their journey, and to supply them with whatever they need for it. Whether Titus did join the apostle at Nicopolis we cannot tell; but we naturally connect the mention of this place with what St. Paul wrote, at no great interval of time afterward, in the last of the Pastoral Epistles, (2 Timothy 4:10) for Dalmatia lay to the north of Nicopolis, at no great distance from it. From the form of the whole sentence, it seems probable that this disciple had been with St. Paul in Rome during his final imprisonment; but this cannot be asserted confidently. The traditional connection of Titus with Crete is much more specific and constant, though here again we cannot be certain of the facts. He said to have been permanent bishop in the island, and to have died there at an advanced age. The modern capital, Candia, appears to claim the honor of being his burial-place. In the fragment by the lawyer Zenas, Titus is called bishop of Gortyna. Lastly, the name of Titus was the watchword of the Cretans when they were invaded by the Venetians. Titus Justus

(The form given in the Revised Version, of the proselyte Justus, at whose house in Corinth Paul preached when driven from the synagogue. He is possibly the same as Titus the companion of Paul.) Titus, Epistle To

There are no specialties in this epistle which require any very elaborate treatment distinct from the other Pastoral Letters of St. Paul. It was written about the same time and under similar circumstances with the other two i.e., from Ephesus, in the autumn of 67 in the interval between Paul's two Roman imprisonments. Tizite, The

the designation of Joha, one of the heroes of David's army. (1 Chronicles 11:45) It occurs nowhere else, and nothing is known of the place or family which it denotes. Toah

(lowly) a Kohathite Levite, ancestor of Samuel and Heman. (1 Chronicles 6:34) (19). Tob

(good), The land of, a place in which Jephthah took refuge when expelled from home by his half-brother, (Judges 11:3) and where he remained, at the head of a band of freebooters, till he was brought back by the sheikhs of Gilead. ver. 5. The narrative implies that the land of Tob was not far distant from Gilead; at the same time, from the nature of the case it must have lain out toward the eastern deserts. It is undoubtedly mentioned again in (2 Samuel 10:6,8) as Ishtob, i.e. man of Tob, meaning, according to a common Hebrew idiom, the men of Tob. After a long interval it appears again, in the Maccabaean history, 1 Macc. 5:13, in the names Tobie and Tubieni. 2 Macc. 12:17. No identification of the ancient, district with any modern one has yet been attempted. Tobadonijah

(Adonijah the good), one of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat through the cities of Judah to teach the law to the people. (2 Chronicles 17:8) (B.C. 910.) Tobiah

(goodness of Jehovah). •"The children of Tobiah" were a family who returned with Zerubbabel, but were unable to prove their connection with Israel— (Ezra 2:60; Nehemiah 7:62) (B.C. before 536.)

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•"Tobiah the slave, the Ammonite," played a conspicuous part in the rancorous position made by Sanballat the Moabite and his adherents to the rebuilding of Jerusalem. (B.C. 446.) The two races of Moab and Ammon found in these men fit representatives of that hereditary hatred to the Israelites which began before the entrance into Caanan, and was not extinct when the Hebrews had ceased to exist as a nation. But Tobiah, though a slave, (Nehemiah 2:10,19)—unless, this is a title of opprobrium—and an Ammonite, found means to ally himself with a priestly family, and his son Johanan married the daughter of Meshullam the son of Berechiah. (Nehemiah 6:18) He himself was the son-in-law of Shechaniah the son of Arah, (Nehemiah 6:17) and these family relations created for him a strong faction among the Jews. Tobijah

(goodness of Jehovah). •One of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat, to teach the law in the cities of Judah. (2 Chronicles 17:8) (B.C. 910.) •One of the captivity in the time of Zechariah, in whose presence the prophet,as commanded to take crowns of silver and gold and put them on the head of Joshua the high priest. (Zechariah 6:10,14) (B.C 519.) Tobit, Book Of

a book of the Apocryphal which exists at present in Greek, Latin, Syriac and Hebrew texts, but it was probably written originally in Greek. The scene of the book is placed in Assyria, whither Tobit, a Jew, had been carried as a captive by Shalmaneser. It is represented and completed shortly after the fall of Nineveh (B.C. 606), Tob. 14:15, and written, in the main, some time before. Tob. 12:20. But the whole tone of the narrative bespeaks a later age and above all, the doctrine of good and evil spirits is elaborated in a form which belongs to a period considerably posterior to the Babylonian captivity. Asmodeus iii. 8; vi. 14; viii. 3; Raphael xii. 15. It cannot be regarded as a true history. It is a didactic narrative and its point lies in the moral lessons which it conveys, and not in the incidents. In modern times the moral excellence of the book has been rated highly, except in the heat of controversy. Nowhere else is there preserved so complete and beautiful a picture of the domestic life of the Jews after the return. Almost every family relation is touched upon with natural grace and affection. A doctrinal feature of the book is the firm belief in a glorious restoration of the Jewish people. Tob. 14:5; 13:9-18. But the restoration contemplated is national, and not the work of a universal Saviour. In all there is not the slightest trace of the belief in a personal Messiah. Tochen

(task), a place mentioned in (1 Chronicles 4:32) only, among the towns of Simeon. Togarmah

a son of Gomer, of the family of Japheth, and brother of Ashkenaz and Riphath. (Genesis 10:3) His descendants became a people engaged in agriculture, breeding horses and mules to be sold in Tyre. (Ezekiel 27:14) They were also a military people, well skilled in the use of arms. Togarmah was probably the ancient name of Armenia. Tohu

(lowly), an ancestor of Samuel the prophet, perhaps the same as Toah. (1 Samuel 1:1) comp. 1Chr 6:34 Toi

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(erring), king of Hamath on the Orontes, who, after the defeat of his powerful enemy the Syrian king Hadadezer by the army of David, sent his son Joram or Hadoram to congratulate the victory and do him homage with presents of gold and silver and brass. (2 Samuel 8:9,10) (B.C. 1036.) Tola

The first-born of Issachar and ancestor of the Tolaiters. (Genesis 46:13; Numbers 26:23; 1 Chronicles 7:1,2) (B.C. about 1700.) •

•Judge of Israel after Abimelech. (Judges 10:1,2) He is described as "the son of Puah the son of Dodo, a man of Issachar." Tola judged Israel for twenty-three years at Shamir in Mount Ephraim, where he died and was buried. (B.C. 1206-1183.) Tolad

one of the towns of Simeon, (1 Chronicles 4:29) elsewhere called El-tolad. Tolaites, The

the descendants of Tola the son of Issachar. (Numbers 26:23) Tomb

From the burial of Sarah in the cave of Machpelah, (Genesis 23:19) to the funeral rites prepared for Dorcas, (Acts 9:37) there is no mention of any sarcophagus, or even coffin, in any Jewish burial. Still less were the rites of the Jews like those of the Pelasgi or Etruscans. They were marked with the same simplicity that characterized all their religious observances. This simplicity of rite led to what may be called the distinguishing characteristic of Jewish sepulchres—the deep loculus—which, so far as is now known, is universal in all purely Jewish rock-cut tombs, but hardly known elsewhere. Its form will be understood by referring to the following diagram, representing the forms of Jewish sepulture. In the apartment marked A there are twelve such loculi about two feet in width by three feet high. On the ground floor these generally open on the level of the door; when in the upper story, as at C, on a ledge or platform, on which the body might be laid to be anointed, and on which the stones might rest which closed the outer end of each loculus. The shallow loculus is shown in chamber B, but was apparently only used when sarcophagi were employed, and therefore, so far as we know, only during the Graeco-Roman period, when foreign customs came to be adopted. The shallow loculus would have been singularly inappropriate and inconvenient where an unembalmed body was laid out to decay, as there would evidently be no means of shutting it off from the rest of the catacomb. The deep loculus, on the other hand, was strictly conformable with Jewish customs, and could easily be closed by a stone fitted to the end and luted into the groove which usually exists there. This fact is especially interesting as it affords a key to much that is otherwise hard to be understood in certain passages in the New Testament; Thus in (John 11:59) Jesus says, "Take away the stone," and (ver. 40) "they took away the stone" without difficulty, apparently. And in ch. (John 20:1) the same expression is used "the stone is taken away." There is one catacomb— that known as the "tomb of the kings"—which is closed by a stone rolled across its entrance; but it is the only one, and the immense amount of contrivance and fitting which it has required is sufficient proof that such an arrangement was not applied to any other of the numerous rock tombs around Jerusalem nor could the traces of it have been obliterated had if anywhere existed. Although, therefore, the Jews were singularly free from the pomps and vanities of funereal magnificence, they were at all stages of their independent existence an eminently burying people. Tombs of the patriarchs .—One of the most striking events in the life of Abraham is the purchase of the field of Ephron the Hittite at Hebron, in which was the cave of Machpelah, in order that he might therein bury Sarah his wife, and that it might be a sepulchre for himself and his children.

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There he and his immediate descendants were laid 3700 years ago, and there they are believed to rest now, under the great mosque of Hebron; but no one in modern times has seen their remains, or been allowed to enter into the cave where they rest. From the time when Abraham established the burying-place of his family at Hebron till the time when David fixed that of his family in the city which bore his name, the Jewish rulers-had no fixed or favorite place of sepulture. Each was buried on his own property, or where he died, without much caring for either the sanctity or convenience chosen. Tomb of the kings.—Of the twenty-two kings of Judah who reigned at Jerusalem from 1048 to 590 B.C. eleven, or exactly one half, were buried in one hypogeum in the "city of David." Of all these it is merely said that they were buried in "the sepulchres of their fathers" or "of the kings" in the city of David, except of two— Asa and Hezekiah. Two more of these kings—Jehoram and Joash—were buried also in the city of David "but not in the sepulchres of the kings." The passage in (Nehemiah 3:18) and in Ezek 43:7,9 Together with the reiterated assertion of the books of Kings and Chronicles that these sepulchres were situated in the city of David, leaves no doubt that they were on Zion, or the Eastern Hill, and in the immediate proximity of the temple. Up to the present time we have not been able to identify one single sepulchral excavation about Jerusalem can be said with certainty to belong to a period anterior to that of the Maccabees, or more correctly, to have been used for burial before the time of the Romans. The only important hypogeum which is wholly Jewish in its arrangement, and may consequently belong to an earlier or to any epoch, is that known as the tombs of the prophets, in the western flank of the Mount of Olives. It has every appearance of having originally been a natural cavern improved by art, and with an external gallery some 140 feet in extent, into which twenty-seven deep or Jewish loculi open. Graeco-Roman tombs .—Besides the tombs above enumerated, there are around Jerusalem, in the valleys of Hinnom and Jehoshaphat and on the plateau to the north, a number of remarkable rock-cut sepulchres, with more or less architectural decoration, sufficient to enable us to ascertain that they are all of nearly the same age, and to assert with very tolerable confidence that the epoch to which they belong must be between the introduction of Roman influence and the destruction of the city by Titus, A.D. 70. In the village of Siloam there is a monolithic cell of singularly Egyptian aspect which Deuteronomy Saulcy assumes to be a chapel of Solomon's Egyptian wife. It is probably of very much more modern date, and is more Assyrian than Egyptian in character. The principal remaining architectural sepulchres may be divided into three groups: first, those existing in the valley of Jehoshaphat, and known popularly as the tombs of Zechariah of St. James and of Absalom. Second those known as the tombs of the Judges, and the so-called Jewish tomb about a mile north of the city. Third, that known as the tomb of the kings, about half a mile north of the Damascus Gate. Of the three first-named tombs the most southern is known as that of Zechariah a popular name which there is not even a shadow of tradition to justify. Tombs of the judges .—The hypogeum known as the tombs of the judges is one of the most remarkable of the catacombs around Jerusalem, containing about sixty deep loculi, arranged in three stories; the upper stories with ledges in front, to give convenient access, and to support the stones that close them; the lower flush with the ground; the whole, consequently, so essentially Jewish that it might be of any age if it were not for its distance from the town and its architectural character. Tombs of Herod .—The last of the great groups enumerated above is that known as the tomb of the kings—Kebur es Sulton—or the Royal Caverns, so called because of their magnificence and also because, that name is applied to them by Josephus. They are twice again mentioned under the title of the "monuments of Herod." There seems no reason for doubting that all the architectural tombs

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of Jerusalem belong to the age of the Romans. Tomb of Helena of Adiabene .—There was one other very famous tomb at Jerusalem, which cannot he passed over in silence, though not one vestige of it exists—the supposed tomb of Helena. We are told that "she with her brother was buried in the pyramids which she had ordered to be constructed at a distance of three stadia from Jerusalem." Joseph. Ant. xx. 4,3. This is confirmed by Pelusanias. viii. 16. The tomb was situated outside the third wall near a gate between the tower Psephinus and the Royal Caverns. B.J. v. 22 and v. 4,2. The people still cling to their ancient cemeteries in the valley of Jehoshaphat with a tenacity singularly characteristic of the east. [Burial, Sepulchres] Tongues, Confusion Of

The unity of the human race is most clearly implied, if not positively asserted, in the Mosaic writings. Unity of language is assumed by the sacred historian apparently as a corollary of the unity of race. (This statement is confirmed by philologists.) No explanation is given of the origin of speech, but its exercise is evidently regarded as coeval with the creation of man. The original unity of speech was restored in Noah. Disturbing causes were, however, early at work to dissolve this twofold union of community and speech. The human family endeavored b check the tendency to separation by the establishment of a great central edifice and a city which should serve as the metropolis of the whole world. The project was defeated by the interposition of Jehovah, who determined to "confound their language, so that they might not understand one another's speech." Contemporaneously with, and perhaps as the result of, this confusion of tongues, the people were scattered abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth, and the memory of the great event was preserved in the name Babel. [Babel. Tower OF] Inscription of Nebuchadnezzar .—In the Borsippa inscription of Nebuchadnezzar there is an allusion to the confusion of tongues. "We say for the other, that is, this edifice, the house of the Seven Lights of the Earth, the most ancient monument of Borsippa, a former king built it [they reckon forty-two ages], but he did not complete its head. Since a remote time people had abandoned it, without order expressing their words . Since that time the earthquake and the thunder had dispersed its sun-dried clay; the bricks of the casing had been split, and the earth of the interior had been scattered in heaps." It is unnecessary to assume that the judgment inflicted on the builders of Babel amounted to a loss, or even a suspension of articulate speech. The desired object would be equally attained by a miraculous forestallment of those dialectical differences of language which are constantly in process of production. The elements of the one original language may have remained, but so disguised by variations of pronunciation and by the introduction of new combinations as to be practically obliterated. The confusion of tongues and the dispersion of nations are spoken of in the Bible as contemporaneous events. The divergence of the various families into distinct tribes and nations ran parallel with the divergence of speech into dialects and languages, and thus the tenth chapter of Genesis is posterior in historical sequence to the events recorded in the eleventh chapter. Tongues, Gift Of

I. glotta, or glossa, the word employed throughout the New Testament for the gift now under consideration, is used— (1) for the bodily organ of speech; (2) for a foreign word imported and half-naturalized in Greek; (3) in Hellenistic Greek, for "speech" or "language." The received traditional view, which starts from the third meaning, and sees in the gift of tongues a distinctly linguistic power, is the more correct one. II. The chief passages from which we have to draw our conclusion as to the nature and purpose of the gift in question are— •(Mark 16:17)

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•(Acts 2:1-13; 10:46; 19:6) •(2 Corinthians 12:1; 2 Corinthians 14:1) ... III. The promise of a new power coming from the divine Spirit, giving not only comfort and insight into truth, but fresh powers of utterance of some kind, appears once and again in our Lord's teaching. The disciples are to take no thought what they shall speak, for the spirit of their Father shall speak in them. (Matthew 10:19,20; Mark 13:11) The lips of Galilean peasants are to speak freely and boldly before kings. The promise of our Lord to his disciples, "They shall speak with new tongues," (Mark 16:17) was fulfilled on the day of Pentecost, when cloven tongues like fire sat upon the disciples, and "every man heard them speak in his own language." (Acts 2:1-12) IV. The wonder of the day of Pentecost is, in its broad features, familiar enough to us. What views have men actually taken of a phenomenon so marvellous and exceptional? The prevalent belief of the Church has been that in the Pentecostal gift the disciples received a supernatural knowledge of all such languages as they needed for their work as evangelists. The knowledge was permanent. Widely diffused as this belief has been it must be remembered that it goes beyond the data with which the New Testament supplies us. Such instance of the gift recorded in the Acts connects it not with the work of teaching, but with that of praise and adoration; not with the normal order of men's lives but with exceptional epochs in them. The speech of St. Peter which follows, like meet other speeches addressed to a Jerusalem audience, was spoken apparently in Aramaic. When St. Paul, who "spake with tongues more than all," was at Lystra, there is no mention made of his using the language of Lycaonia. It is almost implied that he did not understand it. (Acts 14:11) Not one word in the discussion of spiritual gifts in 1Cor 12-14 implies that the gift was of this nature, or given for this purpose. Nor, it may be added, within the limits assigned the providence of God to the working of the apostolic Church,was such a gift necessary. Aramaic, Greek, Latin, the three languages of the inscription on the cross were media, of intercourse throughout the empire. Some interpreters have seen their way to another solution of the difficulty by changing the character of the miracle. It lay not in any new character bestowed on the speakers, but in the impression produced on the hearers. Words which the Galilean disciples uttered in their own tongue were heard as in their native speech by those who listened. There are, it is believed, weighty reasons against both the earlier and later forms of this hypothesis. •It is at variance with the distinct statement of (Acts 2:4) "They began to speak with other tongues." •It at once multiplies the miracle and degrades its character. Not the 120 disciples, but the whole multitude of many thousands, are in this case the subjects of it. •It involves an element of falsehood. The miracle, on this view, was wrought to make men believe what was not actually the fact. •It is altogether inapplicable to the phenomena of (1 Corinthians 14:1) ... Critics of a negative school have, as might be expected, adopted the easier course of rejecting the narrative either altogether or in part. What then, are, the facts actually brought before us? What inferences may be legitimately drawn from them? (a) The utterance of words by the disciples, in other languages than their own Galilean Aramaic, is distinctly asserted. (b) The words spoken appear to have been determined, not by the will of the speakers, but by the Spirit which "gave them utterance." (c) The word used, apoftheggesthai, has in the LXX. a special association with the oracular speech of true or false prophets, and appears to imply a peculiar, perhaps physical, solemn intonation. Comp. (1 Chronicles 25:1; Ezekiel 13:9) (d) The "tongues" were used as an instrument not of teaching, but of praise. (e) Those who spoke them seemed to others to be under the influence of some strong excitement, "full of new wine." (f) Questions as to the mode of operation of a power above the

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common laws of bodily or mental life lead us to a region where our words should be "wary and few." It must be remembered then, that in all likelihood such words as they then uttered had been heard by the disciples before. The difference was that before the Galilean peasants had stood in that crowd neither heeding nor understanding nor remembering what they heard, still less able to reproduce it; now they had the power of speaking it clearly and freely. The divine work would in this case take the form of a supernatural exaltation of the memory, not of imparting a miraculous knowledge of words never heard before. (g) The gift of tongues, the ecstatic burst of praise, is definitely asserted to be a fulfillment of the prediction of (Joel 2:28) We are led, therefore, to look for that which answers to the gift of tongues in the other element of prophecy which is included in the Old Testament use of the word; and this is found in the ecstatic praise, the burst of sang. (1 Samuel 10:5-13; 19:20-24; 1 Chronicles 25:3) (h) The other instances in the Acts offer essentially the same phenomena. By implication in ch. (Acts 14:16-10) by express statement in ch. (Acts 10:47; 11:15,17; 19:6) it belongs to special critical epochs. V. The First Epistle to the Corinthians supplies fuller data. The spiritual gifts are classified and compared arranged, apparently, according to their worth. The facts which may be gathered are briefly these: •The phenomena of the gift of tongues were not confined to one church or section of a church. •The comparison of gifts, in both the lists given by St. Paul— (1 Corinthians 12:8-10,28-30)—places that of tongues and the interpretation of tongues lowest in the scale. •The main characteristic of the "tongue" is that it is unintelligible. The man "speaks mysteries," prays, blesses, gives thanks, in the tongue, (1 Corinthians 14:15,16) but no one understands him. •The peculiar nature of the gift leads the apostle into what at first appears a contradiction. "Tongues are for a sign," not to believers, but to those who do not believe; yet the effect on unbelievers is not that of attracting, but of repelling. They involve of necessity a disturbance of the equilibrium between the understanding and the feeling. Therefore it is that, for those who believe already, prophecy is the greater gift. •The "tongues," however, must be regarded as real languages. The "divers kinds of tongues." (1 Corinthians 12:28) the "tongues of men," (1 Corinthians 13:1) point to differences of some kind and it is easier to conceive of these as differences of language than as belonging to utterances all equally mild and inarticulate. •Connected with the "tongues" there was the corresponding power of interpretation. VI. •Traces of the gift are found in the Epistles to the Romans, the Galatians, the Ephesians. From the Pastoral Epistles, from those of St. Peter and St. John, they are altogether absent, and this is in itself significant. •It is probable, however, that the disappearance of the "tongues" was gradual. There must have been a time when "tongues" were still heard, though less frequently and with less striking results. For the most part, however, the pierce which they had filled in the worship of the Church was supplied by the "hymns and spiritual songs" of the succeeding age, after this, within the Church we lose nearly all traces of them. The gift of the day of Pentecost belonged to a critical epoch, not to the continuous life of the Church. It implied a disturbance of the equilibrium of man's normal state but it was not the instrument for building up the Church. Topaz

one of the gems used in the high priest's breastplate, (Exodus 28:17; 39:10; Ezekiel 28:13) one of the foundations also of the New Jerusalem, in St. John's description of the city. (Revelation 21:20) The topaz of the ancient Greeks and Romans is generally allowed to be our chrysolite, while

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their chrysolite is our topaz. Chrysolite is a silicate of magnesia and iron; it is so son as to lose its polish unless carefully used. It varies in color from a pale-green to a bottle-green. It is supposed that its name was derived from Topazos, an island in the Red Sea where these stones were procured. Tophel

(mortar), (1:1) has been identified with Tufileh on a wady of the same name running north of Bozra toward the southeast corner of the Dead Sea. Topheth

and once To'phet (place of burning), was in the southeast extremity of the "valley of the son of Hinnom," (Jeremiah 7:31) which is "by the entry of the east gate." (Jeremiah 19:2) The locality of Hinnom is to have been elsewhere. [Hinnom] It seems also to have been part of the king's gardens, and watered by Siloam, perhaps a little to the south of the present Birket el-Hamra . The name Tophet occurs only in the Old Testament. (2 Kings 23:10; Isaiah 30:33; Jeremiah 7:31,32; 19:6,11,12,13,14) The New does not refer to it, nor the Apocrypha. Tophet has been variously translated. The most natural meaning seems that suggested by the occurrence of the word in two consecutive verses, in one of which it is a tabret and in the other Tophet. (Isaiah 30:32,37) The Hebrew words are nearly identical; and Tophet war probably the king's "music-grove" or garden, denoting originally nothing evil or hateful. Certainly there is no proof that it took its name from the beaten to drown the cries of the burning victims that passed through the fire to Molech. Afterward it was defiled by idols and polluted by the sacrifices of Baal and the fires of Molech. Then it became the place of abomination, the very gate or pit of hell. The pious kings defiled it and threw down its altars and high places, pouring into it all the filth of the city, till it became the "abhorrence" of Jerusalem. Tormah

occurs only in the margin of (Judges 9:31) By a few commentators it has been conjectured that the word was originally the same with Arumah in ver. 41. Tortoise

(Heb. tsab). The tsab occurs only in (Leviticus 11:29) as the name of some unclean animal. The Hebrew word may be identified with the kindred Arabic dhab, "a large kind of lizard," which appears to be the Psommosaurus scincus of Cuvier. Tou, Or Toi

king of Hamath. (1 Chronicles 18:9,10) Tower

Watch-towers or fortified posts in frontier or exposed situations are mentioned in Scripture, as the tower of Edar, etc., (Genesis 35:21; Isaiah 21:5,8,11; Micah 4:8) etc.; the tower of Lebanon. (2 Samuel 8:6) Besides these military structures, we read in Scripture of towers built in vineyards as an almost necessary appendage to them. (1 Samuel 5:2; Matthew 22:33; Mark 12:1) Such towers are still in use in Palestine in vineyards, especially near Hebron, and are used as lodges for the keepers of the vineyards. Town Clerk

the title ascribed in our version to the magistrate at Ephesus who appeased the mob in the theatre at the time of the tumult excited by Demetrius and his fellow craftsmen. (Acts 19:35) The original service of this class of men was to record the laws and decrees of the state, and to read them in public. Trachonitis

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(a rugged region), (Luke 3:1) is in all probability the Greek equivalent for the Aramaic Argob, one of the five Roman provinces into which the country northeast of the Jordan was divided in New Testament times. [Argob] Trance

(1) In the only passage— (Numbers 24:4,16)—in which this word occurs in the English of the Old Testament italics show no corresponding word in Hebrew. In the New Testament we meet with the word three times— (Acts 10:10; 11:6; 22:17) The ekstasis (i.e. trance) is the state in which a man has passed out of the usual order of his life, beyond the usual limits of consciousness and volition, being rapt in causes of this state are to be traced commonly to strong religious impressions. Whatever explanation may be given of it, it is true of many, if not of most, of those who have left the stamp of their own character on the religious history of mankind, that they have been liable to pass at times into this abnormal state. The union of intense feeling, strong volition, long-continued thought (the conditions of all wide and lasting influence, aided in many cases by the withdrawal from the lower life of the support which is needed to maintain a healthy equilibrium, appears to have been more than the "earthen vessel" will bear. The words which speak of "an ecstasy of adoration" are often literally true. As in other things, so also here, the phenomena are common to higher and lower, to true and false systems. We may not point to trances and ecstasies as proofs of a true revelation but still less may we think of them as at all inconsistent with it. Thus though we have not the word, we have the thing in the "deep sleep" the "horror of great darkness," that fell on Abraham. (Genesis 15:12) Balaam, as if overcome by the constraining power of a Spirit mightier than his own, "sees the vision of God, falling, but with opened eyes." (Numbers 24:4) Saul, in like manner, when the wild chant of the prophets stirred the old depths of feeling, himself also "prophesied" and "fell down"—most, if not all, of his kingly clothing being thrown off in the ecstasy of the moment—"all that day and all that night." (1 Samuel 19:24) Something there was in Jeremiah that made men say of him that he was as one that" is mad and maketh himself a prophet." (Jeremiah 29:26) In Ezekiel the phenomena appear in more wonderful and awful forms. (Ezekiel 3:15) As other elements and forms of the prophetic work were revived in "the apostles and prophets" of the New Testament, so also was this. Though different in form, it belongs to the same class of phenomena as the gift of tongues, and is connected with "visions and revelations of the Lord" In some cases, indeed, it is the chosen channel for such revelations. (Acts 10:11; 22:17-21) Wisely for the most part did the apostle draw a veil over these more mysterious experiences. (2 Corinthians 12:1-4) Transfiguration, The

(The event in the earthly life of Christ which marks the culminating point in his public ministry, and stands midway between the temptation in the wilderness and the agony in Gethsemane, (Matthew 17:1-13; Mark 9:2-13; Luke 9:28-36) Place . Though tradition locates the transfiguration on Mount Tabor there is little to confirm this view and modern critics favor Mount Hermon, the highest mountain-top in Gaulanitis, or one of the spurs of the Anti-Lebanus. Time .—The transfiguration probably took place at night, because it could then be seen to better advantage than in daylight, and Jesus usually went to mountains to spend there the night in prayer. (Matthew 14:23,24; Luke 6:12; 21:37) The apostles were asleep, and are described its having kept themselves awake through the act of transfiguration. (Luke 9:32) The actors and witnesses .—Christ was the central figure, the subject of transfiguration. Moses and Elijah appeared from the heavenly world, as the representatives of the Old Testament, the one of the law the other of prophecy, to do homage to him who was the fulfillment of both. Mr. Ellicott says, "The close of the ministry of each was not after the 'common

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death of all men.' No man knew of the sepulchre of Moses, (34:6) and Elijah had passed away in the chariot and horses of fire. (2 Kings 2:11) Both were associated in men's minds with the glory of the kingdom of the Christ. The Jerusalem Targum on (Exodus 12:1) ... connects the coming of Moses with that of the Messiah. Another Jewish tradition predicts his appearance with that of Elijah." Moses the law giver and Elijah the chief of the prophets both appear talking with Christ the source of the gospel, to show that they are all one and agree in one. St. Luke, (Luke 9:31) adds the subject of their communing: "They spake of his decease which he should accomplish at Jerusalem." Among the apostles the three favorite disciples, Peter, James and John were the sole witnesses of the scene— "the sons of thunder and the man of rock." The event itself .—The transfiguration or transformation, or, as the Germans call it, the glorification, consisted in a visible manifestation of the inner glory of Christ's person, accompanied by an audible voice from heaven. It was the revelation and anticipation of his future state of glory, which was concealed under the veil of his humanity in the state of humiliation. The cloud which overshadowed the witnesses was bright or light-like, luminous, of the same kind as the cloud at the ascension. Significance of the miracle .— •It served as a solemn inauguration of the history of the passion and final consummation of Christ's work on earth. •It confirmed the faith of the three favorite disciples, and prepared them for the great trial which was approaching, by showing them the real glory and power of Jesus. •It was a witness that the spirits of the lawgiver and the prophet accepted the sufferings and the death which had shaken the faith of the disciples as the necessary conditions of the messianic kingdom.—Ellicott. As envoys from the eternal Majesty, audibly affirmed that it was the will the Father that with his own precious blood he should make atonement for sin. They impressed a new seal upon the ancient, eternal truth that the partition wall which sin had raised could he broken down by no other means than by the power of his sufferings; that he as the good Shepherd could only ransom his sheep with the price of his own life.-Krummacher. •It furnishes also to us all a striking proof of the unity of the Old and New Testaments, for personal immortality, and the mysterious intercommunion of the visible and invisible worlds. Both meet in Jesus Christ; he is the connecting link between the Old and New Testaments, between heaven and earth, between the kingdom of grace and the kingdom of glory. It is very significant that at the end of the scene the disciples saw no man save Jesus alive. Moses and Elijah, the law and the promise, types and shadows, pass away; the gospel, the fulfillment, the substance Christ remains—the only one who can relieve the misery of earth and glorify our nature, Christ all in all. (chiefly from Smith's larger Bib. Dic.—ED.) Treasurecities

The kings of Judah had keepers of their treasures both in city and country (1 Chronicles 27:25) and the places where these magazines were laid up were called treasure-cities. and the buildings treasure-houses. Pharaoh compelled the Hebrews to build him treasure-cities. (Exodus 1:11)—McClintock and Strong. [Pithom] Treasury

(Mark 12:41; Luke 21:1) a name given by the rabbins to thirteen chests in the temple, called trumpets from their shape. They stood in the court of the women. It would seem probable that this court was sometimes itself called "the treasury" because it contained these repositories. Trespass Offering

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[Sin Offering OFFERING] Trial

Information on the subject of trials under the Jewish law will be found in the articles on Judges and Sanhedrin, and also in Jesus Christ CHRIST. Tribute

The chief biblical facts connected with the payment of tribute have been already given under Taxes. The tribute (money) mentioned in (Matthew 17:24,25) was the half shekel (worth from 25 to 27 cents) applied to defray the general expenses of the temple. After the destruction of the temple this was sequestrated by Vespasian and his successors and transferred to the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter. This "tribute" of (Matthew 17:24) must not be confounded with the tribute paid to the Roman emperor. (Matthew 22:17) The temple rate, though resting on an ancient precedent— (Exodus 30:13)—was as above a fixed annual tribute of comparatively late origin. Tribute Money

[Taxes; Tribute] Troas

the city from which St. Paul first sailed, in consequence of a divine intimation, to carry the gospel from Asia to Europe. (Acts 16:8,11) It is mentioned on other occasions. (Acts 20:5,6; 2 Corinthians 2:12,13; 2 Timothy 4:13) Its full name was Alexandria Troas (Liv. xxxv. 42), and sometimes it was called simply Alexandria sometimes simply Troas. It was first built by Antigonus under the name of Antigonea Troas, and peopled with the inhabitants of some neighboring cities. Afterward it was embellished by Lysimachus, and named Alexandria Troas. Its situation was on the coast of Mysia, opposite the southeast extremity of the island of Tenedos. Under the Romans it was one of the most important towns of the province of Asia. In the time of St. Paul it was a colonia with the Jus Italicum . The modern name is Eski-Stamboul, with considerable ruins. We can still trace the harbor in a basin about 400 feet long and 200 broad. Trogyllium

is the rocky extremity of the ridge of Mycale, exactly opposite Samos. (Acts 20:15) A little to the east of the extreme point there is an anchorage, which is still called St. Paul's port. [Samos] Troop, Band

These words are employed to represent the Hebrew word gedud, which has invariably the sense of an irregular force, gathered with the object of marauding and plunder. Trophimus

(nutritious). Both Trophimus and Tychicus accompanied Paul from Macedonia as far as Asia, but Tychicus seems to have remained there, while Trophimus proceeded with the apostle to Jerusalem. (A.D. 54.) There he was the innocent cause of the tumult in which St. Paul was apprehended. (Acts 21:27-29) From this passage we learn two new facts, viz. that Trophimus was a Gentile, and that he was a native of Trophimus was probably one brethren who, with Titus, conveyed the second Epistle to the Corinthians. (2 Corinthians 8:16-24) [Tychicus] Trumpet

[Cornet] Trumpets, Feast Of

(Numbers 29:1; Leviticus 23:24) the feast of the new moon, which fell on the first of Tisri. It differed from the ordinary festivals of the new moon in several important particulars. It was one of the seven days of holy convocation. Instead of the mere blowing of the trumpets of the temple

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at the time of the offering of the sacrifices, it was "a day of blowing of trumpets." In addition to the daily sacrifices and the eleven victims offered on the first of every month, there were offered a young bullock, a ram and seven lambs of the first year, with the accustomed meat offerings, and a kid for a sin offering. (Numbers 29:1-6) The regular monthly offering was thus repeated, with the exception of the young bullock. It has been conjectured that (Psalms 81:1) ... one of the songs of Asaph, was composed expressly for the Feast of Trumpets. The psalm is used in the service for the day by the modern Jews. Various meanings have been assigned to the Feast of Trumpets; but there seems to be no sufficient reason to call in question the common opinion of Jews and Christians, that if was the festival of the New Year's day of the civil year, the first of Tisri, the month which commenced the sabbatical year and the year of jubilee. Tryphena

and Trypho'sa (luxurious), two Christian women at Rome, enumerated in the conclusion of St. Paul's letter. (Romans 16:12) (A.D. 55.) They may have been sisters, but it is more likely that they were fellow deaconesses. We know nothing more of these two sister workers of the apostolic time. Tryphon

A usurper of the Syrian throne. His proper name was Diodotus, and the surname Tryphon was given to him or adopted by him after his secession to power. He was a native of Cariana. 1 Macc. 11:39, 12:39-50, etc. "Tryphon, by treason and successive wars, gained supreme power, killed Antiochus and assumed the throne. "The coins bear his head as Antiochus and Trypho." Tryphosa

[Tryphena] Tubal

is reckoned with Javan and Meshech among the sons of Japheth. (Genesis 10:2; 1 Chronicles 1:5) The three are again associated in the enumeration of the sources of the wealth of Tyre. (Ezekiel 27:13) Tubal and Javan, (Isaiah 68:19) Meshech and Tubal, (Ezekiel 32:26; 38:2,3; 39:1) are nations of the north. (Ezekiel 38:15; 39:2) Josephus identified the descendants of Tubal with the Iberians, that is, the inhabitants of a tract of country between the Caspian and Euxine Seas, which nearly corresponded to the modern Georgia. Tubalcain

the son of Lamech the Cainite by his wife Zillah, (Genesis 4:22) (B.C. about 3000.) He is called "a furbisher of every cutting instrument of copper and iron." Turpentine Tree

occurs only once, via. in the Apocrypha. Ecclus. 24:16. It is the Pistacia terebinthus, terebinth tree, common in Palestine and the East. The terebinth occasionally grows to a large size. It belongs to the natural order Anacurdiaceas, the plants of which order generally contain resinous secretions. Turtle, Turtledove

Turtur auritus (Heb. tor). The name is phonetic, evidently derived from the plaintive cooing of the bird. It is one of the smaller members of the group of birds which ornithologists usually call pigeons . The turtle-dove occurs first in Scripture in (Genesis 15:9) In the Levitical law a pair of turtle-doves or of young pigeons are constantly prescribed as a substitute for those who were too poor to provide a lamb or a kid. The offering of two young pigeons must have been one easily within the reach of the poorest. The admission of a pair of turtle-doves was perhaps a yet further concession to extreme poverty, for they were extremely numerous, and their young might easily be found and captured by those who did not possess pigeons. In the valley of the Jordan, an allied

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species, the palm-dove (so named because it builds its nest in the palm tree), or Egyptian turtle— Turtur aegyptiacus, Temm.—is by no means uncommon. It is not improbable that the palm-dove may in some measure have supplied the sacrifice in the wilderness, for it is found in amazing numbers wherever the palm tree occurs, whether wild or cultivated. From its habit of pairing for life, and its fidelity to its mate, the turtle-dove was a symbol of purity and an appropriate offering. The regular migration of the turtle-dove and its return in the spring are alluded to in (Jeremiah 8:7) and Song 2:11,12 It is from its plaintive note doubtless that David in (Psalms 74:19) pouring forth his lament to God, compares himself to a turtle-dove. Twin Brothers

This term is used in the Revised Version of (Acts 28:11) for Castor And Pollux AND Pollux, which see. Tychicus

(fateful) and Troph'imus (nutritious), companions of St. Paul on some of his journeys, are mentioned as natives of Asia. (Acts 20:4; 21:29; 2 Timothy 4:20) (A.D. 54-64.) There is much probability in the conjecture that Tychicus and Trophimus were the two brethren who were associated with Titus. (2 Corinthians 8:16-24) in conducting the business of the collection for the poor Christians in Judea. Tyrannus

(sovereign), the name of a man in whose school or place of audience Paul taught the gospel for two years, during his sojourn at Ephesus. See (Acts 19:9) (A.D. 52,53.) The presumption is that Tyrannus himself was a Greek, and a public teacher of philosophy or rhetoric. Tyre

(a rock), a celebrated commercial city of Phoenicia, on the coast of the Mediterranean. Its Hebrew name, Tzor, signifies a rock; which well agrees with the site of Sur, the modern town, on a rocky peninsula, formerly an island. There is no doubt that, previous to the siege of the city by Alexander the Great, Tyre was situated on an island; but, according to the tradition of the inhabitants, there was a city on the mainland before there was a city on the island; and the tradition receives some color from the name of Palaetyrus, or Old Tyre, which was borne in Greek times by a city on the continent, thirty stadia to the south. Notices in the Bible .—In the Bible Tyre is named for the first time in the of Joshua, ch. (Joshua 19:29) where it is adverted to as a fortified city (in the Authorized Version "the strong city") in reference to the boundaries of the tribe of Asher, But the first passages in the Hebrew historical writings, or in ancient history generally, which actual glimpses of the actual condition of Tyre are in the book of Samuel, (2 Samuel 6:11) in connection with Hiram king of Tyre sending cedar wood and workmen to David, for building him a palace; and subsequently in the book of Kings, in connection with the building of Solomon's temple. It is evident that under Solomon there was a close alliance between the Hebrews and the Tyrians. Hiram supplied Solomon with cedar wood, precious metals and workmen, and gave him sailors for the voyage to Ophir and India, while on the other hand Solomon gave Hiram supplies of corn and oil, ceded to him some cities, and permitted him to make use of some havens on the Red Sea. (1 Kings 9:11-14; 26-28; 10:22) These friendly relations survived for a time the disastrous secession of the ten tribes, and a century later Ahab married a daughter of Ethbaal king of the Sidonians, (1 Kings 16:31) who, according to Menander, was daughter of Ithobal king of Tyre. When mercantile cupidity induced the Tyrians and the neighboring Phoenicians to buy Hebrew captives from their enemies, and to sell them as slaves to the Greeks and Edomites, there commenced denunciations, and at first threats

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of retaliation. (Joel 3:4-8; Amos 1:9,10) When Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, had taken the city of Samaria, had conquered the kingdom of Israel, and carried its inhabitants into captivity, he laid siege to Tyre, which, however, successfully resisted his arms. It is in reference to this siege that the prophecy against Tyre in Isaiah, (Isaiah 23:1) ... was uttered. After the siege of Tyre by Shalmaneser (which must have taken place not long after 721 B.C.). Tyre remained a powerful state, with its own kings, (Jeremiah 25:22; 27:3; Ezekiel 28:2-12) remarkable for its wealth, with territory on the mainland, and protected by strong fortifications. (Ezekiel 26:4,6,8,10,12; 27:11; 28:5; Zechariah 9:3) Our knowledge of its condition thenceforward until the siege by Nebuchadnezzar depends entirely on various notices of it by the Hebrew prophets; but some of these notices are singularly full, and especially the twenty-seventh chapter of Ezekiel furnishes us, on some points, with details such as have scarcely come down to us respecting any one city of antiquity excepting Rome and Athens. Siege by Nebuchadnezzar .—In the midst of great prosperity and wealth, which was the natural result of extensive trade, (Ezekiel 28:4) Nebuchadnezzar, at the head of an army of the Chaldees, invaded Judea and captured Jerusalem. As Tyre was so near to Jerusalem, and as the conquerors were a fierce and formidable race, (Habakkuk 1:6) It would naturally he supposed that this event would have excited alarm and terror amongst the Tyrians. Instead of this, we may infer from Ezekiel's statement, (Ezekiel 26:2) that their predominant feeling was one of exultation. At first sight this appears strange and almost inconceivable; but it is rendered intelligible by some previous events in Jewish history. Only 34 years before the destruction of Jerusalem commenced the celebrated reformation of Josiah, B.C. 622. This momentous religious revolution, (2 Kings 22:1; 2 Kings 23:1) ... fully explains the exultation and malevolence of the Tyrians. In that reformation Josiah had heaped insults on the gods who were the objects of Tyrian veneration and love. Indeed, he seemed to have endeavored to exterminate their religion. (2 Kings 23:20) These acts must have been regarded by the Tyrians as a series of sacrilegious and abominable outrages; and we can scarcely doubt that the death in battle of Josiah at Megiddo and the subsequent destruction of the city and temple of Jerusalem, were hailed by them with triumph and retribution in human affairs. This joy, as instances of divine retribution in human affairs. This joy, however, must soon have given way to other feelings, when Nebuchadnezzar invaded Phoenicia and laid siege to Tyre. That siege lasted thirteen years, and it is still a disputed point whether Tyre was actually taken by Nebuchadnezzar on this occasion. However this may be, it is probable that, on some terms or other, Tyre submitted to the Chaldees. The rule of Nebuchadnezzar over Tyre, though real, may have been light, and in the nature of an alliance. Attack by the Persians; Capture by Alexander .—During the Persian domination the Tyrians were subject in name to the Persian king and may have given him tribute. With the rest of Phoenicia they had submitted to the Persians without striking a blow. Toward the close of the following century, B.C. 332, Tyre was assailed for the third time by a great conqueror. At that time Tyre was situated on an island nearly half a mile from the mainland; it was completely surrounded by prodigious walls, the loftiest portion of which on the side fronting the mainland reached a height of not less than 150 feet; and notwithstanding the persevering efforts of Alexander, he could not have succeeded in his attempt if the harbor of Tyre to the north had not been blockaded by the Cyprians and that to the south by the Phoenicians, thus affording an opportunity to Alexander for uniting the Island to the mainland by an; enormous artificial mole. (The materials for this he obtained from the remains of old Tyre scraping the very dust from her rocks into the sea, as prophesied by Ezekiel, (Ezekiel 26:3,4,12,21) more than 250 years before.) The immediate results of the capture by Alexander were most disastrous

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to Tyre, as its brave defenders were put to death; and in accordance with the barbarous policy of ancient times, 30,000 of its inhabitants, including slaves, free females and free children, were sold as slaves. It gradually, how ever, recovered its prosperity through the immigration of fresh settlers, though its trade is said to have suffered by the vicinity and rivalry of Alexandria. Under the Macedonian successors of Alexander it shared the fortunes of the Seleucidae. Under the Romans, at first it enjoyed a kind of freedom. Subsequently, however, on the arrival of Augustus in the East, he is said to have deprived both Tyre and Sidon of their liberties for seditious conduct. Still the prosperity of Tyre in the time of Augustus was undeniably great. Strabo gives an account of it at that period, speaks of the great wealth which it derived from the dyes of the celebrated Tyrian purple which, as is well known were extracted from shell-fish found on the coast, belonging to a species of the genus Murex . Tyre in the time of Christ and since.—When visited by Christ, (Matthew 15:21; Mark 7:24) Tyre was perhaps more populous than Jerusalem, and if so, it was undoubtedly the largest city which the saviour is known to have visited. At the time of the crusades it was still a flourishing; city, when if surrendered to the Christians on the 27th of June 1144. It continued more than a century and a half in the hands of Christians, but was deserted by its inhabitants in A.D. 1291 upon the conquest of Acre (Ptolemais) by the sultan of Egypt and Damascus. This was the turning-point in the history of Tyre, which has never recovered from the blow. Its present condition is a fulfillment of Ezekiel's prophecy (Ezekiel 28:5) It contains, according to Volney, 50 or 60 poor families, who live in part by fishing; and is, as Bruce describes it, "rock whereon fishers dry their nets." Tyrus

This form is employed in the Authorized Version of the books of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea (Joel has "Tyre"), Amos and Zechariah, as follows: (Jeremiah 25:22; 27:3; 47:4; Ezekiel 26:2,3,4,7,15; 27:2,3,8,32; 28:2,12; 29:18; Hosea 9:13; Amos 1:9,10; Zechariah 9:2,3)

Ucal

(I am strong). According to the received text of (Proverbs 30:1) Ithiel and Ucal must be regarded as proper names; and if so, they must be the names of disciples or sons of Agur the son of Jakeh, an unknown sage among the Hebrews. But there is great obscurity about the passage. Ewald considers both Ithiel and Ucal as symbolical names, employed by the poet to designate two classes of thinkers to whom he addresses himself. Uel

(will of God), one of the family of Bani, who during the captivity had married a foreign wife. (Ezra 10:34) (B.C. 458.) Uknaz

In the margin of (1 Chronicles 4:16) the words "even Kenaz" in the text are rendered "Uknaz," as the proper name. Ulai

(pure water) is mentioned by Daniel, (Daniel 8:2,16) as a river near to Susa, where he saw his vision of the ram and the he-goat. It has been generally identified with the Eulaeus of the Greek and Roman geographers, a large stream in the immediate neighborhood of that city. The Eulseus has been by many identified with the Choaspes, which is undoubtedly the modern Kerkhah, an

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affluent of the Tigris, flowing into it a little below Kurnah . Recent surveys show that the Choarspes once divided into two streams about 20 miles above Susa. The eastern was the Ulai. This bifurcation explains (Daniel 8:16) Ulam

(porch). •A descendant of Gilead, the grandson of Manasseh and father of Bedan. (1 Chronicles 7:17) (B.C. 1450.) •The first-born of Eshek, a descendant of the house of Saul. (1 Chronicles 8:39,40) (B.C. 588.) Ulla

(yoke), an Asherite, head of a family in his tribe. (1 Chronicles 7:30) (B.C. about 1014.) Ummah

(union), one of the cities of the allotment of Asher. (Joshua 10:30) only. Probably 'Alma, in the highlands of the coast, about five miles east-northeast of Ras en-Nakhura . Unclean Meats

These were things strangled, or dead of themselves or through beasts or birds of prey; whatever beast did not both part the hoof and chew the cud; and certain other smaller animals rated as "creeping things;" certain classes of birds mentioned in Levi 11 and Deuteronomy 14 twenty or twenty-one in all; whatever in the waters had not both fins and scales whatever winged insect had not besides four legs the two hindlegs for leaping; Besides things offered in sacrifice to idols; and ail blood or whatever contained it (save perhaps the blood of fish, as would appear from that only of beast and bird being forbidden,) (Leviticus 7:26) and therefore flesh cut from the live animal; as also all fat, at any rate that disposed in masses among the intestines, and probably wherever discernible end separable among the flesh. (Leviticus 3:14-17; 7:23) The eating of blood was prohibited even to "the stranger that sojourneth among you." (Leviticus 17:10; 12:14) As regards blood, the prohibition indeed dates from the declaration to Noah against "flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof" in (Genesis 9:4) which was perhaps by Moses as still binding upon all Noah's descendants. It is noteworthy that the practical effect of the rule laid down is to exclude all the carnivora among quadrupeds, and, so far as we can interpret the nomenclature the raptores among birds. They were probably excluded as being not averse to human carcasses, and in most eastern countries acting as the servitors of the battle-field and the gibbet. Among fish those which were allowed contain unquestionably the most wholesome varieties, save that they exclude the oyster. Practically the law left among the allowed Meats an ample variety. As Orientals have minds sensitive to teaching by types, there can be little doubt that such cere menial distinctions not only tended to keep Jew and Gentile apart (and so prevented the Jews from becoming contaminated with the idolatry of the Gentiles), but were a perpetual reminder to the former that he and the latter were not on one level before God. Hence, when that ceremony was changed we find that this was the very symbol selected to instruct St. Peter in the truth that God was not a "respecter of persons." It remains to mention the sanitary aspect of the case. Swine are said to peculiarly liable to disease in their own bodies. This probably means that they are more easily led than other creatures to the foul feeding which produces it. As regards the animals allowed for food, comparing them with those forbidden, there can be no doubt on which side the balance of wholesomeness lies. Uncleanness

The distinctive idea attached to ceremonial uncleanness among the Hebrews was that it cut a person off for the time from social privileges, and left his citizenship among God's people for the

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while in abeyance. There is an intense reality in the fact of the divine law taking hold of a man by the ordinary infirmities of flesh, and setting its stamp, as it were, in the lowest clay of which he is moulded. The sacredness attached to the human body is parallel to that which invested the ark of the covenant itself. It is as though Jehovah thereby would teach men that the "very hairs of their head were all numbered" before him and that "in his book were all their members written." Thus was inculcated so to speak a bodily holiness. Nor were the Israelites to be only "separated from other people," but they were to be "holy to God," (Leviticus 20:24,26) "a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation." The importance to physical well-being of the injunctions which required frequent ablution, under whatever special pretexts, can be but feebly appreciated in our cooler and damper climate. Uncleanness, as referred to men, may be arranged in three degrees: •That which defiled merely "until even." and was removed by bathing and washing the clothes at the end of it; such were all contacts with dead animals. •That graver sort which defiled for seven days, and was removed by the use of the "water of separation;" such were all defilements connected with the human corpse. •Uncleanness from the morbid perpetual or menstrual state, lasting as long as that morbid state lasted; and in the case of leprosy lasting often for life. As the human person was itself the seat of a covenant token, so male and female had each their ceremonial obligations in proportion to their sexual differences. There is an emphatic reminder of human weakness in the fact of birth and death-man's passage alike into and out of his mortal state— being marked with a stated pollution. The corpse bequeathed a defilement of seven days to all who handled it, to the "tent" or chamber of death, and to sundry things within it. Nay, contact with one slain in the field of battle or with even a human bone or grave, was no less effectual to pollute than that with a corpse dead by the course of nature. (Numbers 19:11-18) This shows that the source of pollution lay in the mere fact of death. The duration of defilement caused by the birth of a female infant being double that due to a male, extending respectively to eighty and forty days in All, (Leviticus 12:2-5) may perhaps represent the woman's heavier share in the first sin and first curse. (Genesis 3:16; 1 Timothy 2:14) Among causes of defilement should be noticed the fact that the ashes of the red heifer burnt whole which were mixed with water and became the standing resource for purifying uncleanness in the second degree, themselves became a source of defilement to all who were clean, even as of purification to the unclean, and so the water. Somewhat similarly the scapegoat, who bore away the sins of the people, defiled him who led him into the wilderness, and the bringing forth aid burning the sacrifice on the Great Day of Atonement had a similar power. This lightest form of uncleanness was expiated by bathing the body and washing the clothes. Besides the water of purification made as afore said, men and women, in their "issues," were, after seven days, reckoned from the cessation of the disorder, to bring two turtle-doves or young pigeons to be killed by the priests. All these kinds of uncleanness disqualified for holy functions: as the layman so affected might not approach the congregation and the sanctuary, so any priest who incurred defilement must abstain from holy things. (Leviticus 22:2-8) [Leper, Leprosy] The religion of the persians shows a singularly close correspondence with the Levitical code. Undergirding

(Acts 27:17) [Ship] Unicorn

the rendering of the Authorized Version of the Hebrew reem, a word which occurs seven times in the Old Testament as the name of some large wild animal. The reem of the Hebrew Bible,

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however, has nothing at all to do with the one-horned animal of the Greek and Roman writers, as is evident from (33:17) where in the blessing of Joseph it is said; "his glory is like the firstling of his bullock, and his horns are like the horns of a unicorn ;" not, as the text of the Authorized Version renders it, "the horns of unicorns ." The two horns of the ram are "the ten thousands of Ephraim and the thousands of Manasseh." This text puts a one-horned animal entirely out of the question. Considering that the reem is spoken of as a two-horned animal of great strength and ferocity, that it was evidently well known and often seen by the Jews, that it is mentioned as an animal fit for sacrificial purposes, and that it is frequently associated with bulls and oxen we think there can be no doubt that, some species of wild ox is intended. The allusion in (Psalms 92:10) "But thou shalt lift up, as a reeym, my horn," seems to point to the mode in which the Bovidae use their horns, lowering the head and then tossing it up. But it is impossible to determine what particular species of wild ox is signified probably some gigantic urus is intended. (It is probable that it was the gigantic Bos primigeniua, or aurochs, now extinct, but of which Caesar says, "These uri are scarcely less than elephants in size, but in their nature, color and form are bulls. Great is their strength and great their speed; they spare neither man nor beast when once; they have caught sight of them"—Bell. Gall. vi. 20.-ED.) Unni

(depressed). •One of the Levite doorkeepers in the time of David. (1 Chronicles 15:18,20) (B.C. 1043.) •A second Levite (unless the family of the foregoing be intended) concerned in the sacred office after the return from Babylon. (Nehemiah 12:9) (B.C. 535.) Uphaz

(Jeremiah 10:9; Daniel 10:5) [Ophir] Ur

was the land of Haran's nativity, (Genesis 11:28) the place from which Terah and Abraham started "to go into the land of Canaan." (Genesis 11:31) It is called in Genesis "Ur of the Chaldaeans," while in the Acts St. Stephen places it, by implication, in Mesopotamia. (Acts 7:2,4) These are all the indications which Scripture furnishes as to its locality. It has been identified by the most ancient traditions with the city of Orfah in the highlands of Mesopotamia, which unite the table-land of Armenia to the valley of the Euphrates. In later ages it was called Edessa, and was celebrated as the capital of Abgarus or Acbarus who was said to have received the letter and portrait of our Saviour. "Two, physical features must have secured Orfah, from the earliest times, as a nucleus for the civilization of those regions. One is a high-crested crag, the natural fortifications of the crested citadel....The other is an abundant spring, issuing in a pool of transparent clearness, and embosomed in a mass of luxuriant verdure, which, amidst the dull brown desert all around, makes and must always have made, this spot an oasis, a paradise, in the Chaldaean wilderness. Round this sacred pool,'the beautiful spring Callirrhoe,' as it was called by the Greek writers, gather the modern traditions of the patriarch."—Stanley, Jewish Church, part i.p.7. A second tradition, which appears in the Talmud, finds Ur in Warka, 120 miles southeast from Babylon and four east of the Euphrates. It was the Orchoe of the Greeks, and probably the Ereck of Holy Scripture. This place bears the name of Huruk in the native inscriptions, and was in the countries known to the Jews as the land of the Chaldaeans. But in opposition to the most ancient traditions, many modern writers have fixed the site of Ur at a very different position, viz. in the extreme south of Chaldaea, at Mugheir, not very far above— and probably in the time of Abraham actually upon—the head of

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the Persian Gulf. Among the ruins which are now seen at the spot are the remains of one of the great temples, of a model similar to that of Babel, dedicated to the moon, to whom the city was sacred. (Porter and Rawlinson favor this last place.) Urbane, Or Urbane

(of the city; polite), the Greek form of the Latin Urbanus, as it is given in the Revised Version. He was a Christian disciple who is in the long list of those whom St. Paul salutes in writing to Rome. (Romans 16:9) (A.D. 55.) Urbanus

the form given in the Revised Version for Urbane. Uri

(fiery). •The father of Bezaleel, one of the architects of the tabernacle. (Exodus 31:2; 35:30; 38:22; 1 Chronicles 2:20; 2 Chronicles 1:5) He was of the tribe of Judah, and grandson of Caleb ben-Hezron. (B.C. 1491.) •The father of Geber, Solomon's commissariat officer in Gilead. (1 Kings 4:19) (B.C. before 1010.) •One of the gatekeepers of the temple in the time of Ezra. (Ezra 10:24) (B.C. 458.) Uriah

(light of Jehovah). •One of the thirty commanders of the thirty bands into which the Israelite army of David was divided. (1 Chronicles 11:41; 2 Samuel 23:39) Like others of David's officers he was a foreigner—a Hittite. His name, however and his manner of speech (2 Samuel 11:11) indicate that he had adopted the Jewish religion. He married Bath-sheba a woman of extraordinary beauty, the daughter of Eliam—possibly the same as the son of Ahithophel, and one of his brother officers, (2 Samuel 23:34) and hence, perhaps, Uriah's first acquaintance with Bath-sheba. It may be inferred from Nathan's parable, (2 Samuel 12:3) that he was passionately devoted to his wife, and that their union was celebrated in Jerusalem as one of peculiar tenderness. In the first war with Ammon, B.C. 1035, he followed Joab to the siege, and with him remained encamped in the open field. (2 Samuel 12:11) He returned to Jerusalem, at an order from the king on the pretext of asking news of the war—really in the hope that his return to his wife might cover the shame of his own crime. The king met with an unexpected obstacle in the austere, soldier-like spirit which guided all Uriah's conduct, and which gives us a high notion of the character and discipline of David's officers. On the morning of the third day David sent him back to the camp with a letter containing the command to Joab to cause his destruction in the battle. The device of Joab was to observe the part of the wall of Rabbath-ammon where the greatest force of the besieged was congregated, and thither, as a kind of forlorn hope to send Uriah. A sally took place. Uriah and the officers with him advanced as far as the gate of the city, and were there shot down by the archers on the wall. Just as Joab had forewarned the messenger, the king broke into a furious passion on hearing of the loss. The messenger, as instructed by Joab, calmly continued, and ended the story with the words, "Thy servant also Uriah the Hittite, is dead." In a moment David's anger is appeased. It is one of the touching parts of the story that Uriah falls unconscious of his wife's dishonor. •High priest in the reign of Ahaz. (Isaiah 8:2; 2 Kings 16:10-16) He is probably the same as Urijah the priest, who built the altar for Ahaz. (2 Kings 16:10) (B.C. about 738.) •A priest of the family of Hakkoz, the head of the seventh course of priests. (Ezra 8:33; Nehemiah 3:4,21) (B.C. 458.)

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Urias

Uriah, the husband of Bath-sheba. (Matthew 1:6) • •Urijah •1 Esdr. 9:43. Uriel

A Kohathite Levite, son of Tahath. (1 Chronicles 6:24) • •Chief of the Kohathites in the reign of David. (1 Chronicles 15:5,11) (B.C. 1043.) •Uriel of Gibeah was the father of Maachah or Michaiah the favorite wife of Rehoboam and mother of Abijah. (2 Chronicles 13:2) (B.C. before 973.) In (2 Chronicles 11:20) she is called "Maachah the daughter of Absalom." Probably her mother, Tamer, was the daughter of Absalom.

(the fire of God), an angel named only in 2 Esdr. 4:1,36; 5:20; 10:28. Urijah

(light of Jehovah). •Urijah the priest in the reign of Ahaz, (2 Kings 16:10) probably the same as Uriah, •A priest of the family of Koz or Hakkoz, the same as Uriah, •One of the priests who stood at Ezra's right hand when he read the law to the people. (Nehemiah 8:4) (B.C. 458.) •The son of Shemaiah of Kirjathjearim. He prophesied in the days of Jehoiakim, B.C. 600, and the king sought to put him to death; but he escaped, and fled into Egypt. His retreat was soon covered; Elnathan and his men brought him up out of Egypt, and Jehoiakim slew him with the sword and cast his body forth among the graves of the common people (Jeremiah 26:20-23) Urim And Thummim

(light and perfection). When the Jewish exiles were met on their return from Babylon by a question which they had no data for answering, they agreed to postpone the settlement of the difficulty till there should rise up "a priest with Urim and Thummim." (Ezra 2:63; Nehemiah 7:65) The inquiry what those Urim and Thummim themselves were seems likely to wait as long for a final and satisfying answer. On every side we meet with confessions of ignorance. Urim means "light," and Thummim "perfection." Scriptural statements.—The mysterious words meet us for the first time, as if they needed no explanation, in the description of the high Priest's apparel. Over the ephod there is to be a "breastplate of judgment" of gold, scarlet, purple and fine linen, folded square and doubled, a "span" in length and width. In it are to be set four rows of precious stones, each stone with the name of a tribe of Israel engraved on it, that Aaron "may bear them on his heart." Then comes a further order. In side the breastplate, as the tables of the covenant were placed inside the ark, (Exodus 25:16; 28:30) are to be placed "the Urim and the Thummim," the light and the perfection; and they too are to be on Aaron's heart when he goes in before the Lord. (Exodus 28:15-30) Not a word describes them. They are mentioned as things-already familiar both to Moses and the people, connected naturally with the functions of the high priest as mediating between Jehovah and his people. The command is fulfilled. (Leviticus 8:8) They pass from Aaron to Eleazar with the sacred ephod and other pontificalia . (Numbers 20:28) When Joshua is solemnly appointed to succeed the great hero-law-giver he is bidden to stand before Eleazar, the priest, "who shall ask counsel for him after the judgment of Urim," and this counsel is to determine the movements of the host of Israel. (Numbers 27:21) In the blessings of Moses they appear as the crowning glory of the tribe of Levi: "thy Thummim and thy Urim are with thy Holy One." (33:8,9) In what way the Urim and Thummim were consulted is quite uncertain. Josephus and the rabbins supposed that the

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stones gave out the oracular answer by preternatural illumination; but it seems to be far simpler and more in agreement with the different accounts of inquiries made by Urim and Thummim, (1 Samuel 14:3,18,19; 23:2,4,9,11,12; 28:6; Judges 20:28; 2 Samuel 5:23) etc., to suppose that the answer was given simply by the word of the Lord to the high priest comp. (John 11:51) when, clothed with the ephod and the breastplate, he had inquired of the Lord. Such a view agrees with the true notion of the breastplate. Usury

(The word usury has come in modern English to mean excessive interest upon money loaned, either formally illegal or at least oppressive. In the Scriptures, however the word did not bear this sense, but meant simply interest of any kind upon money. The Jews were forbidden by the law of Moses to take interest from their brethren, but were permitted to take it from foreigners. The prohibition grew out of the agricultural status of the people, in which ordinary business loans were not needed. and loans as were required should be made only as to friends and brothers in need.—ED.) The practice of mortgaging land, sometimes at exorbitant interest, grew up among the Jews during the captivity, in direct violation of the law. (Leviticus 25:36,37; Ezekiel 18:8,13,17) We find the rate reaching 1 in 100 per month, corresponding to the Roman centisimae usurae, or 12 per cent. per annum. Ut

(wooded). •A son of Aram, (Genesis 10:23; 1 Chronicles 1:17) end consequently a grand son of Shem. (B.C. 2400-2300.) •A son of Nahor by Milcah. (Genesis 22:21) Authorized Version, Huz. (B.C. about 1900.) •A son of Dishan, and grandson of Seir. (Genesis 36:28) (B.C. after 1800.) •The country in which Job lived. (Job 1:1) As far as we can gather, "the land of Uz" lay either east or southeast of Palestine, (Job 1:3) adjacent to the Sabaeans and the Chaldaeans, (Job 1:15,17) consequently north of the southern Arabians and west of the Euphrates; and, lastly, adjacent to the Edomites of Mount Seir, who at one period occupied Uz, probably as conquerors, (Lamentations 4:21) and whose troglodyte habits are described in (Job 30:6,7) From the above data we infer that the land of Uz corresponds to the Arabia Deserta of classical geography, at all events to so much of it as lies north of the 30th parallel of latitude. Uta

1 Esdr. 5:30. It appears to be a corruption of Akkub. (Ezra 2:45) Uthai

(helpful), •The son of Ammihud, of the children of Pharez the son of Judah. (1 Chronicles 9:4) (B.C. 536.) •One of the sons of Bigvai, who returned in the second caravan with Ezra. (Ezra 8:14) (B.C.459.) Uthii

1 Esdr. 8:40. [Uthai,2] Uzai

(strong), the father of Palal who assisted Nehemiah in rebuilding the city wail. (Nehemiah 3:25) (B.C. before 446.) Uzal

(separate), the sixth son of Joktan, (Genesis 10:27; 1 Chronicles 1:21) whose settlements are clearly traced in the ancient name of San'a, the capital city of the Yemen (a district of Arabia),

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which was originally Awzal . From its position in the centre of the best portion of that kingdom it must always have been an important city. (San'a is situated about 150 miles from Aden and 100 miles from the coast of the Red Sea. It is one of the most imposing cities of Arabia -ED.) Uzza

(strength). •A Benjamite of the sons of Ehud. (1 Chronicles 8:7) (B.C. 1445.) •Elsewhere called Uzza, Or Uzzah. (1 Chronicles 13:7,9,10,11) [Uzza, Or Uzzah] •The children of Uzza were a family of Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:49; Nehemiah 7:51) (B.C. before 536.) •Properly Uzzah. As the text now stands, Uzzah is a descendant of Merari, (1 Chronicles 6:29) (14); but there appears to be a gap in the verse. Perhaps he is the same as Zina or Zizah the son of Shimei. (1 Chronicles 23:10,11) for these names evidently denote the same person, and, in Hebrew character, are not unlike Uzzah. Uzza, Or Uzzah

(strength), one of the sons of Abinadab, in whose house at Kirjath-jearim the ark rested for twenty years. Uzzah probably was the second and Ahio the third. They both accompanied its removal when David first undertook to carry it to Jerusalem. (B.C. 1043.) Ahio apparently went before the new cart, (1 Chronicles 13:7) on which it was placed, and Uzzah walked by the side. "At the threshing-floor of Nachon" (2 Samuel 6:6) or Chidon (1 Chronicles 13:9) perhaps slipping over the smooth rock oxen stumbled. Uzzah caught the ark to prevent its falling. The profanation was punished by his instant death to the great grief of David, who named the place Perez-uzzah (the breaking-forth on Uzzah). But Uzzah's fate was not merely the penalty of his own rashness. The improper mode of transporting the ark, which ought to have been borne on the shoulders of the Levites was the primary cause of his unholy deed; and David distinctly recognized it as a punishment on the people in general "because we sought him not after the due order." Uzza, The Garden Of

the spot in which Manasseh king of Judah and his son Amon were buried. (2 Kings 21:18,26) It was the garden attached to Manasseh's palace. ver. 18. The fact of its mention shows that it was not where the usual sepulchres of the kings were. No clue, however, is afforded to its position. Uzzensherah

(ear (or point) of Sherah) a town founded or rebuilt by Sherah, an Ephraimite woman the daughter either of Ephraim himself or of Beriah. It is named only in (1 Chronicles 7:24) in connection with the two Beth-horons. Uzzi

(strong). •Son of Bukki and father of Zerahiah, in the line of the high priests. (1 Chronicles 6:5,61; Ezra 7:4) Though Uzzi was the lineal ancestor of Zadok, it does not appear that he was ever high priest. He must have been contemporary with, but rather earlier than, Eli. (B.C. before 1161.) •Son of Tola the son of Issachar. (1 Chronicles 7:2,3) (B.C. 1706.) •Son of Bela, of the tribe of Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 7:7) (B.C. 1706.) •Another, or the same, from whom descended some Benjamite houses, which were settled at Jerusalem after the return from captivity. (1 Chronicles 9:8) •A Levite, son of Bani and overseer of the Levites dwelling at Jerusalem, in the time of Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 11:22)

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•A priest, chief of the father's house of Jedaiah, in the time of Joiakim the high priest. (Nehemiah 12:19) (B.C. about 500.) •One of the priests who assisted Ezra in the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem. (Nehemiah 12:42) Perhaps the same as the preceding. (B.C. 446.) Uzzia

(strength of Jehovah), one of David's guard, and apparently a native of Ashtaroth beyond Jordan. (1 Chronicles 11:44) (B.C. 1053.) Uzziah

(strength of Jehovah). •King of Judah B.C. 809-8 to 757-6. In some passages his name appears in the lengthened form Azariah: After the murder of Amaziah, his son Uzziah was chosen by the people, at the age of sixteen, to occupy the vacant throne; and for the greater part of his long reign of fifty-two years he lived in the fear of God, and showed himself a wise, active and pious ruler. He never deserted the worship of the true God, and was much influenced by Zechariah, a prophet who is mentioned only in connection with him. (2 Chronicles 26:5) So the southern kingdom was raised to a condition of prosperity which it had not known since the death of Solomon. The end of Uzziah was less prosperous than his beginning. Elated with his splendid career, he determined to burn incense on the altar of God, but was opposed by the high priest Azariah and eighty others. See (Exodus 30:7,8; Numbers 16:40; 18:7) The king was enraged at their resistance, and, as he pressed forward with his censer was suddenly smitten with leprosy. This lawless attempt to burn incense was the only exception to the excellence of his administration. (2 Chronicles 27:2) Uzziah was buried "with his fathers," yet apparently not actually in the royal sepulchres. (2 Chronicles 26:23) During his reign a great earthquake occurred. (Amos 1:1; Zechariah 14:5) •A Kohathite Levite, and ancestor of Samuel. (1 Chronicles 6:24) (9). •A priest of the sons of Harim, who had taken a foreign wife in the days of Ezra. (Ezra 10:21) (B.C. 458.) •Father of Athaiah or Uthai. (Nehemiah 11:4) •Father of Jehonathan, one of David's overseers. (1 Chronicles 27:25) (B.C. about 1053.) Uzziel

(my strength is God). •Fourth son of Kohath, father of Mishael, Eizaphan or Elizaphan and Zithri, and uncle to Aaron. (Exodus 6:18,22; Leviticus 10:4) (B.C. before 1491.) •A Simeonite captain, son of Ishi, in the days of Hezekiah. (1 Chronicles 4:42) •Head of a Benjamite house, of the sons of Bela. (1 Chronicles 7:7) (B.C. 1706.) •A musician, of the sons of Heman in David's reign. (1 Chronicles 25:4) •A Levite, of the sons of Jeduthun, in the days of Hezekiah. (2 Chronicles 29:14,18) (B.C. 726.) •Son of Harhaiah, probably a priest in the days of Nehemiah, who took part in repairing the wall. (Nehemiah 3:8) (B.C. 446.) He is described as "of the goldsmiths," i.e. of those priests whose hereditary office it was to repair or make the sacred vessels. Uzzielites, The

the descendants of Uzziel, and one of the four great families of the Kohathites. (Numbers 3:27; 1 Chronicles 26:23)

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

Vajezatha

(strong as the wind), one of the ten sons of Haman whom the Jews slew in Shushan. (Esther 9:9) (B.C. 473.) Vale, Valley

It is hardly necessary to state that these words signify a hollow sweep of ground between two more or less parallel ridges of high land. The structure of the greater part of the holy land does not lend itself to the formation of valleys in our sense of the word. The abrupt transitions of its crowded rocky hills preclude the existence of any extended sweep of valley. Valley is employed in the Authorized Version to render five distinct Hebrew words. •'Emek . This appears to approach more nearly to the general sense of the English word than any other. It is connected with several places. •Gai or ge . Of this there is fortunately one example which can be identified with certainty—the deep hollow which compasses the southwest and south of Jerusalem. This identification establishes the ge as a deep and abrupt ravine, with steep sides and narrow bottom. •Nachal . This word answers to the Arabic wady, and expresses, as no single English word can, the bed of a stream (often wide and shelving, and like a "valley" in character, which in the rainy season may be nearly filled by a foaming torrent, though for the greater part of the year dry). •Bik'ah . This term appears to mean rather a plain than a valley, though so far resembling it as to be enclosed by mountains. It is rendered by "valley" in (34:3; Joshua 11:8,17; 12:7; 2 Chronicles 35:22; Zechariah 12:11) •has-Shefelah . The district to which the name has-Shefelah is applied in the Bible has no resemblance whatever to a valley, but is a broad, swelling tract of many hundred miles in area, which sweeps gently down from the mountains Judah to the Mediterranean. It is rendered "the vale" in (1:7; Joshua 10:40; 1 Kings 10:27; 2 Chronicles 1:15; Jeremiah 33:13) and "the valley" or "the valleys" in (Joshua 9:1; 11:2,16; 12:8; 15:33; Judges 1:9; Jeremiah 32:44) Vaniah

(Jehovah is praise), one of the sons of Bani, (Ezra 10:36) (B.C. 458.) Vashni

(strong), the first-born of Samuel as the text now stands. (1 Chronicles 6:28) (13); but in (1 Samuel 8:2) the name of his first-born is Joel. Most probably in the Chronicles the name of Joel has dropped out: and Vashni is a corruption of vesheni, and (the) second." Vashti

(beautiful), the "queen" of Ahasuerus, who, for refusing to show herself to the king's guests at the royal banquet, when sent for by the king, was repudiated and deposed. (Esther 1:1) ... (B.C. 483.) Many attempts have been made to identify her with historical personages; but it is far more probable that she was only one of the inferior wives, dignified with the title of queen, whose name has utterly disappeared from history. Veil

With regard to the use of the veil, it is important to observe that it was by no means so general in ancient as in modern times. Much of the scrupulousness in respect of the use of the veil dates from the promulgation of the Koran, which forbade women appearing unveiled except in the presence of their nearest relatives. In ancient times the veil was adopted only in exceptional cases, either as an article of ornamental dress, (Song of Solomon 4:1,3; 6:7) or by betrothed maidens in the presence of their future husbands, especially at the time of the wedding, (Genesis 24:65) or

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lastly, by women of loose character for purposes of concealment. (Genesis 38:14) Among the Jews of the New Testament age it appears to have been customary for the women to cover their heads (not necessarily their faces) when engaged in public worship. Veil Of The Tabernacle And Temple

[Tabernacle; Temple] Versions, Ancient, Of The Old And New Testaments

In treating of the ancient versions that have come down to us, in whole or in part, they will be described in the alphabetical order of the languages. AETHIOPIC VERSION.—Christianity was introduced into AEthiopia in fourth century through the labors of Frumentius and AEdesius of Tyre, who had been made slaves and sent to the king. The AEthiopic version which we possess is in the ancient dialect of Axum; hence some have ascribed it to the age of the earliest missionaries, but it is probably of a later date. In 1548-9 the AEthiopic New Testament was also printed at Rome, edited by three Abyssinians. ARABIC VERSIONS.— •Arabic versions of the Old Testament were made from the Hebrew (tenth century), from the Syriac and from the LXX •Arabic versions of the New Testament . There are four versions. The first, the Roman, of the Gospels only, was printed in 1590-1. ARMENIAN VERSION.—In the year 431, Joseph and Eznak returned from the Council of Ephesus bringing with them a Greek copy of the Scriptures. From this a version in Armenian was made by Isaac, the Armenian patriarch, and Miesrob. The first printed edition of the Old and New Testaments in Armenian appeared at Amsterdam in 1666, under the care of a person commonly termed Oscan or Uscan, and described as being an Armenian bishop. CHALDEE VERSIONS.—Targum, a Chaldee word of uncertain origin, is the general term for the Chaldee, or more accurately Aramaic, versions of the Old Testament. •The Targums were originally oral, and the earliest Targum, which is that of Onkelos on the Pentateuch, began to be committed to writing about the second century of the Christian era; though if did not assume its present shape till the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century. So far, however, from superseding the oral Targum at once, it was, on the contrary, strictly forbidden to read it in public. Its language is Chaldee, closely approaching in purity of idiom to that of Ezra and Daniel. It follows a sober and clear though not a slavish exegesis, and keeps as closely and minutely: to the text as is at all consistent with its purpose, viz. to be chiefly and above all a version for the people . Its explanations of difficult and obscure passages bear ample witness to the competence of those who gave it its final shape. It avoids, as far as circumstances would allow, the legendary character with which all the later Targums entwine the biblical word. •Targum on the prophets,—viz. Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Kings, the twelve minor prophets,—called Targum OF Jonathan BEN-UZZIEL. We shall probably not be far wrong in placing this Targum some time, although not long, after Onkelos, or about the middle of the fourth century. 3 And 4. Targum of Jonathan ben-Uzziel and Jerushalmi-Targum on the Pentateuch .—Onkelos and Jonathan on the Pentateuch and prophets, whatever be their exact date, place, authorship and editorship, are the oldest of existing Targums, and belong in their present shape, to Babylon and the Babylonian academies flourishing between the third and fourth centuries A.D. EGYPTIAN VERSIONS.—Of these there are three,—the Memphitic, of lower Egypt, the Coptic, of upper Egypt, and the Thebaic, with some fragments of another. The Thebaic was the earliest, and belongs to the third century. GOTHIC VERSION. In the year 318 the Gothic bishop and translator of Scripture Ulphilas, was born. He succeeded Theophilus as bishop of the Goths

William Smith Smith's Bible Dictionary

in 548; through him it is said that the Goths in general adopted Arianism. The great work of Ulphilas was his version of the Scriptures. As an ancient monument of the Gothic language the version of Ulphilas possesses great interest; as a version the use of which was once extended widely through Europe, it is a monument of the Christianization of the Goths; and as a version known to have been made in the fourth century, and transmitted to us in ancient MSS., It has its value in textual criticism. GREEK VERSIONS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.— •Septuagint .—[See Septuagint] •Aquila .—It is a remarkable fact that in the second century there were three versions executed of the Old Testament Scriptures into Greek. The first of these was made by Aquila, a native of Sinope in Pontus, who had become a proselyte to Judaism. It was made during the reign of Hadrian, A.D. 117-138. •Theodotion .—The second version of which we have information as executed in the second century is that of Theodotion. He is stated to have been an Ephesian, and he seems to be most generally described as an Ebionite. •Symmachus is stated by Eusebius and Jerome to have been an Ebionite; Epiphanius and others, however, style him a Samaritan. It may be that as a Samaritan he made this version for some of that people who employed Greek, and who had learned to receive more than the Pentateuch. Latin Versions VERSIONS.—[Vulgate, The] Samaritan Pentateuch VERSIONS.—[Samaritan Pentateuch Pentateuch, The] SLAVONIC VERSION,—In A.D. 862 there was a desire expressed or an inquiry made for Christian teachers in Moravia, and in the following year the labors of missionaries began among the Moravians. These missionaries were Cyrillus and Methodius, two brothers from Thessalonica. To Cyrillus is ascribed the invention of the Slavonian alphabet and the commencement of the translation of the Scriptures. He appears to have died at Rome in 868, while Methodius continued for many years to be the bishop of the Slavonians. He is stated to have continued his brother's translation. SYRIAC VERSIONS.— •Of the Old Testament. (a) From the Hebrew. In the early times of Syrian Christianity there was executed a version of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew, the use of which must have been as widely extended as was the Christian profession among that people. It is highly improbable that any part of the Syriac version is older than the advent of our Lord. The Old Syriac has the peculiar value of being the first version from the Hebrew original made for Christian use. The first printed edition of this version was that which appeared in the Paris Polyglot of Le Jay in 1645. (b) The Syriac version from the Hexaplar Greek text. The only Syriac version of the Old Testament up to the sixth century was apparently the Peshito. The version by Paul of Tela, a Monophysite, was made in the beginning of the seventh century; for its basis he used the Hexaplar Greek text—that is, the LXX., with the corrections of Origen, the asterisks, obeli, etc., and with the references to the other Greek versions. In fact, it is from this Syriac version that we obtain our moat accurate acquaintance with the results of the critical labors of Origen. It is from a MS. in the Ambrosian Library at Milan that we possess accurate means of knowing this Syriac version. •The Syriac New Testament Versions . (a) The Peshito Syriac New Testament. It may stand as an admitted fact that a version of the New Testament in Syriac existed in the second century. (b) The Curetonian Syriac Gospels. Among the MSS. brought from the Nitrian monasteries in 1842, Dr. Cureton noticed a copy of the Gospels, differing greatly from the common text; and this is the form of text to which the name of Curetonian Syriac has been rightly applied. Every criterion

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