Chapter 64
SIXTY-FOURTH CHAPTER
Appointment of the AbboU In the appointment of an abbot, let this be observed as a principle, that one be chosen whom the whole community, in the fear of God, has elected to the office, either unanimously in the fear of the Lord by the community as a whole, or has been so chosen by only a minority of the electors after more mature de liberation.2 Let the one who is to be appointed be selected for ' Cf. chapter i, Excursus II.—In chapter ii, xxvii, & Ixiv, St. Benedict draws a very beautiful sketch of an abbot, indeed, the most beautiful picture of a ruler to be met with in all Christian antiquity. Besides the householder in the Gospels (cf.
Mat. x, 25; xiii. 27-30; xx, 1-11; xxi, 33; xxiii, 43; & Luke xii, 39; xiii, 25; & xiv,
21), in whom the Fathers of the Church love to see the person of Christ, there are other references to the abbas as the ideal monastic father of monks: in Origen, where we have a clear picture of him as the perfect model of the inspired teacher and spiritual father, filled with the spirit and ever active in his solicitude for the welfare of souls; then in the Vita Antonii by St. Athanasius; in the rule of St. Pachomius (chap, clix); in the "Testament" of his disciple Horsiesi; in the "Longer
Rules" of St. Basil (chap, xliii); in many Oriental monastic annals; in the famous
"Monastic Fathers of the Desert" (or simply "Desert Fathers"); and, finally, in the Rule of St. Augustine (chap. xi).
2 In disputed elections, the competent diocesan bishop decided who had the sound er insight into the matter and which was the saner element in the community (cf.
Leo the Great, Letter xiv, 2). To the diocesan ordinary also belonged the final con firmation, blessing, and installation of the properly elected, or better, the particular candidate proposed to him. In the monasteries of St. Pachomius, the abbot and his assistant, the so-called "second" (a kind of "dependent prior"), were named by the abbot-general of the federation (Rule, Prologue 1-8). St. Basil prescribed that the superiors of the neighboring monasteries should elect the new superior of an orphaned monastery (Longer Rules xliii, 2). As the superior-general of his Afri can monasteries, St. Augustine most probably chose any new superior himself.
About the year 455, the new abbot of the island cloister of Lerins was elected by the "vast number of lay-monks" there, and his name was then most likely submitted to the bishop of Frejus for confirmation. The nuns of St. Caesarius elected their abbess (Rule for Nuns 61), whose approbation fell to the bishop of Arles. As we have mentioned before, the cenobites and hermits of Palestine submitted the names of their archimandrites to the Patriarch of Jerusalem, who then confirmed their election (cf. Cyril of Scythopolis, "Lives of Theodosius (f 529) and Sabas (f 532)" xxx). The custom antedated even the Council of Chalcedon (451), which, in its fourth canon, committed all the monasteries of a diocese to the local ordinary.
When Athanasius was "on a visitation to the Churches of God in the Upper Thebaid and Syene, with the purpose of strengthening his doctrine (against Arius) in those districts, his route happened to take him past Tabennisi (the monastery of St. Pachomius)." Pachomius went out with his entire monastic family to meet the archbishop. "The bishop of Tentyra (the ordinary of the diocese in which Taben nisi lay), called the attention of St. Athanasius to him (Pachomius) and said: 'I have in the places that are under my jurisdiction a father of monks, a wonderful and great man, in truth, a man of God. I beseech your holiness to install him as
the merit of his life and the wisdom of his doctrine,1 even if he is the last of the community in the order of rank.
If, however,—which heaven forbid—the whole community should elect one who is in league with them in their vices, and these vices should somehow or other come to the knowledge of the ordinary in whose diocese the place itself is situated or of other abbots and Christians in the neighborhood, let them take measures lest the intrigues of the wicked prevail; but they should appoint a worthy steward over the House of God, knowing that they shall receive a rich reward of they do so from an un selfish zeal for God's honor, and on the other hand, that they will be guilty of sin of they neglect it.2
Let the abbot thus chosen ever bear in mind what a heavy responsibility he has taken upon himself and to whom he must render an account of his stewardship.3 He should know that it the father of all the monks there, so that he may receive this as a gift from your metropolitan authority' " (Second Life xxvi). The ecclesiastical and monastic legislation of Justinian (between the years 535 and 546) codified the customs then prevailing at the election and installation of abbots (Novelle V, ix & CXXX, xxxiii-xliv). The Holy Rule, however, was hardly influenced to any extent by this legislation.
1 Cf. Chapter xxi, Comment 1.
2 In our day neither diocesan ordinaries nor neighboring abbots have anything to say in the election of abbots, least of all influential laymen. Confirmation of the newly elected prelate is obtained directly from the Holy See at the request of the Abbot-president of the Congregation, who, as a rule, usually presides at the elec tion (cf. comment No. 3 below). In certain cases, the abbot is appointed directly by the Holy See, or, as in some Congregations, also by the founding abbot.
3 According to the tenor of the Holy Rule the abbot is accountable to God alone, and this provision is noticeably repeated again and again. In modern times, the local abbot, as far as the Order is concerned, is outranked in three instances: first and immediately by the abbot-president (or archabbot), that is, the head of the monastic federation (congregation), to which, except in rare instances, all abbeys must belong by today's Canon Law. As examples of such federation we may instance in Europe the English, Italian, French, German (Bavarian, Beuronese, &
Ottilien), Austrian, Hungarian, and other Congregations. The abbot-president, or praeses, as he is often called, is elected for a specified number of years by the other abbots of the federation, unless he is appointed for life by the Holy See, as in the case of Archabbot Wimmer, founder of the American Cassinese Congrega tion, and in the case of the first archabbot of the Beuronese Congregation. The abbot-president has the right and the duty to conduct the visitations, either alone or in the company of another visitator, at all the abbeys and independent houses of the union at fixed intervals. At these visitations all resident monks are inter viewed and inquiries are made into the spiritual and financial condition of the
behooves him to provide rather than to preside.1 He must also be versed in rhe Law of God, in order that he may have the knowledge and the means "to bring forth new things and old"
(Matt, xiii, 52). He must be selfless, sober, and merciful; and let him ever exalt mercy above judgment (cf. James ii, 13), so that he may obtain the same for himself. Let him hate vice and love the brethren.2
In the matter of punishment, let him act with prudence and correct with moderation, lest he break the vessel trying to scour away the rust. Let him ever look with distrust on his own frailty and remember that he must not crush the bruised reed (cf. Isa. xlii, 3; & Matt, xii, 20). By this we do not mean that he should allow abuses to grow, but that he must, as we have said, root them out prudently and charitably, accordingly as he thinks it expedient in each case. And let him strive to be loved rather house under visitation, a report of which he must forward to the Holy See. At the top of the whole Order (that is, all Black Benedictines and Olivetans) there is the Abbot Primate, who has his residence at San Anselmo in Rome. Although he has neither the authority nor the jurisdiction of a General of the Order in the same sense as is the case with some later Orders and religious congregations, his im portance is nevertheless obvious (among other things, he is usually the intermediary between the various monasteries and the Holy See. tr.) As the highest admini strative authority over all the orders and religious congregations in the world under the Holy Father, there is the "Sacred Congregation of the Affairs of Religious" in the Curia. Under present Church legislation, every monk has the privilege and the right of recourse, or appeal, independently of his abbot, to any one of these three higher authorities. - Rather surprisingly so, the second half of this 64th chapter, "in its well con structed build-up, is reminiscent of the bishop's admonition to the candidates at their ordination to the diaconate and the priesthood . . . Could it perhaps be a question whether St. Bendict had before him a sort of ritual for an abbatial bless ing" (Suso Brechter)? In any case, his silence on the matter may possibly indicate the existence of such a ritual blessing. Of course, no proof of this can be found in the Rule itself. It is furthermore possible that the various monastic officials
(the cellarer, librarian, keeper of the wardrobe, etc.) were installed in their offices through some kind of ritual act, as for example, through a delivery of the keys (cf.
Caesarius, "Rule for Nuns" 32; and the Holy Rule, chaps, xxxv & xxxviii). (The foregoing comment was revised to some extent to make it more conformable to the conditions prevailing in North America. The translator)
1 The Latin word-play, or alliteration (prodesse—praeesse), can also be rendered by "to benefit rather than to oversee," or "to be a promoter more than a chairman."
In this translation we have chosen the phrase, exactly rendered, as being equally significant and alliterative. St. Augustine frequently gives expression to the same thought (cf. Sermon cccxl, 1; Tr.) 2 Here we have another thought which St. Augustine often puts into words (cf.
Sermon xcv, 5; Rule 7).
than feared.1 Nor may he let himself become violent or over anxious, nor overly headstrong and severe, nor jealous and too suspicious, because otherwise he will never have rest.2
In giving orders, let him be cautious and considerate, and whether the tasks which he enjoins concern the things that per tain to God or to affairs of a material nature, let him be discreet and moderate, mindful of the discretion of Holy Jacob when he said: "Should 1 force my flocks too rapidly on the march, they will all perish in one day" (cf. Gen. xxxiii, 13). These and other examples of the gift of discretion, mother of the virtues, he should apply to himself and so regulate all things that what the strong desire and the weak do not fear may ever prevail.3
In particular, let him adhere to the prescriptions of this Rule in all things, so that after a good administration he may hear from the Lord the same verdict as did the good servant, who pro vided his fellow servants with wheat in due season: "Amen, I say to you"—he said—"he shall place him over all his goods"
(Matt, xxiv, 47).
Excursus I.
Discretion.—Ever since St. Gregory lauded the discretio of the Holy Rule (Dialogue II, xxxvi), Benedictine discretion (moderation or prudence, if you will), has become proverbial. The Rule itself uses the word only three times
(chaps, lxiv & Ixx). In the use of the term and its implications, St. Benedict was completely in accord with old-monastic tradition.
Definition.—The word discretio (Greek-diakrisis), is derived from the word 1 St. Augustine says again in his rule: "The superior may well consider himself fortunate, not because he can give orders to others by virtue of his office, but because by means of it he can be a minister of charity to them. Through his position of honor, let him stand over you before men but lie at your feet in fear before God. He should exhibit himself as a model of good works in the sight of all. He should punish the trouble-makers, comfort the faint-hearted, take the weak to his heart, and be patient with everyone. Let him love the monastic routine and carry it out in a way that commands respect. Although these two things are necessary, let him nevertheless strive to be loved rather than feared by you, be cause he must ever be conscious of the fact that he will have to render an account to God for you all. May you, therefore, by your willing obedience take pity upon yourselves, but have compassion for him, too, for the loftier his status and dignity, the greater is the peril in which he finds himself" (chap. xi). — It was an ancient tyrant who said: "They may hate me so long as they fear me" (Seneca, "On Mildness" I, xii, 4; and II, ii, 2).
2 St. Benedict hints here at this aspect of the old pagan tyrant, which he else where openly holds up before the eyes of the abbot (chap, xxvii).
3 In this respect the tyrant fails most of all, namely, that he lacks the saving virtue of discretion.
discernere (Greek-diakrinein): to divide, to take apart, to discern, to differenti ate, or to decide. We speak, for example, of differentiating between colors.
The ancient (that is, the pre-Christian) teaching on morality spoke of different iating between good and bad, between good and better, between true and false.
Monastic Tradition.—St. Athanasius praised in his friend, the monastic fath er of monks, Antony (f 356), the gift of discerning spirits (cf. 1 Cor. xii, 10).
Whereas a monk need not have this miraculous gift as a sine qua non, he must nevertheless strive under all circumstances to acquire it. He cannot hope to wage a successful fight against the unruly thoughts of his own heart or against Satan and his imps, who often transform themselves into angels of light, un less he is able to distinguish between holy and seductive thoughts and between good and evil spirits (Life xxii; xxxv f; xxxviii & lxxxviii). The discerning of spirits was a characteristic subject of monastic instruction.
In the Greek version of the Verba Seniorum (cf. the Latin version con cerning the discretio in the Vitae Patrum V, x), which takes us back into the fourth century, this discretio was an obvious requisite for every true monk.
Watchfulness, concentration upon oneself (that is, upon one's faults and weak nesses), and discretion are the mistresses of the soul (Poimen). The follow ing maxim has come down to us under the name of the great Antony: "Many, in their asceticism, have emaciated their bodies and are still far from God, be cause they have not used discretion." Antony did not find fault with austere asceticism as such but merely the senseless, "undiscriminating," and planless way in which some adapted their ascetic practices to the concrete circumst ances surrounding their lives. Abbot Poimen, a master and model of discre tion, had this to say about it: "Many a one will carry an axe about with him all the time but find no way to cut down a tree. Another, who is familiar with the process of felling timber, comes along and cuts down the tree with a few strokes." The axe signified the discretio. What did discretion mean in the minds of the desert fathers? It was that "delicate perspicacity by means of which the monk is able to discern the different situations that vary with his constantly changing circumstances, thus enabling him to regulate his conduct accordingly" (Karl Heussi).
Two examples should serve to illustrate the aforesaid. The monks were dining together with Poimen when meat was being served, a dish which they otherwise refused to touch. They ail ate of it except Poimen. Then they won dered, since they were acquainted with his admirable discretion. After the meal they came and asked him: "You are Poimen, and you have acted in this way?" He answered them so: "Forgive me, Fathers! You all ate of it, and no one took umbrage at it. However, had I eaten of it, it might happen that one of the many brethren who come to me (for advice) would suffer harm thereby, if, namely, he were to say: 'Poimen ate meat, but we do not eat it.' Then all the monks did marvel at his discretion." Another example: three monks asked
Abbot Achila for one of his handmade mats. They each wanted one to keep
in their cells as a remembrance of him. In the case of the first two monks, he gently declined to grant their requests, but granted the request of the third.
This monk was an ascetic who had a rather poor reputation as a monk. He ac ceded to this one's plea, because he knew that the other two would not be grieved if he found no time for them, but that the third monk would say that he had been turned down on account of his sins.
Discretion, therefore, is the capacity, from among the numerous possible ways of doing a thing, to discern the one which best fits the given circum stances and the firm decision to put it to use. It may be a decision to adopt a severe attitude or a mild one, accordingly as the concrete circumstances in an individual case call for it. What the proper judgment in a tangible situation should be is the decisive issue. Discretion brings out the superiority of a line of action over a way of proceeding that is either procrastinating or precipitate, or one that is haphazard, thoughtless, or extravagant. Above all, discretion is the ability to differentiate, then the capacity to see what is worthwhile, and, finally, a wise moderation, in a word, the rejection of excessive severity as well as a too timorous precaution.
Abbot Cassian devotes the whole of his second "Conference" to this discretio. Already in the first Conference, he lauds it as a "grace, one that holds the first and highest place among the virtues" (chap, xxiii). It belongs to the highest gifts of grace. The abbot of Marseilles traces this estimate of the value of discretion back to the patriarch, St. Antony (loc. cit. ii). The word discretio he understands as the ability to discriminate between the "too much" and the "too little" in the case of every virtue and the decision to act accordingly. If the monk is gifted with discretion, he will be able to discern and decide, in keeping with his own given capacities and the demands of the moment, what is to be done in the pursuit of monastic virtue. With it he can also be equal to every situation and meet every demand that is made upon him, thus hitting upon the right thing to do. He will not in any of his actions depart or deviate, either to the right or to the left, from the "royal road" of perfect virtue. As a matter of fact, his monastic life will not be unfavorably influenced by a "too much" or a "too little," that is, by either excess or laxity. Without discretion there can be no true or genuine virtue. It is the "mother, guardian spirit, and directress of all the virtues" (loc. cit., 2-4), "the source and root of every virtue" (loc. cit., 9). In the Gospel of St. Matthew, it is called the eye and light of the body (cf. vi, 22), because it sifts, so to speak, all the thoughts and deeds of a man, foreseeing and investigating what is to be done (loc. cit. 2).
St. Benedict, as we have said, used the word discretio only three times.
In the 70th chapter he rebukes the monk who, "without the capacity for dis cretion," allows himself to be carried away by anger towards his elderly breth ren and the children. He means thereby the "indiscriminate, unrestrained, thoughtless, uncontrolled, unconquered, and uncharitable conduct towards any of the brethren." In this 64th chapter on the abbot, he uses it twice; and this was surely not accidenal. Discretion is the abbatial virtue, the distinguishing
virtue of the father, teacher, educator, shepherd, physician, and judge in the coenobium. This "mother of the virtues" enables him to lead and guide the community and its individual members in a manner that is conformable and adapted to their individual personalities, capacities, and powers. It is truly the master's virtue. It rules out with equal cogency all tyranny, all want of love, all thoughtlessness, and all lack of reverence for the inherent dignity of a monk. It admits of no shilly-shallying or violence of temper in dealing with him. Discretion directs all the virtues which the Rule demands of the abbot towards, as it were, a focal point. It embraces in its ambit prudence, justice, self-discipline, moderation, and determination. It lends the proper measure to all these virtues and guards them against those harmful and corrupting faults of "two much" and "too little." The abbot who possesses the charism of dis cretion will with instinctive certainty recognize and execute the will of God, both subjectively and objectively. Under his leadership and guidance, the monk knows that he is protected and far from danger.
Not only this chapter, but also the entire Holy Rule, is a wonderful com mentary on monastic discretion. This should not be interpreted to mean that the Rule is always on the side of mildness and indulgence. To assume this would be completely wrong. The Holy Rule is decidedly firm in its leaning to wards severity, towards unrelenting and uncompromising strictness, as often as the welfare of the community and the salvation of souls call for it. Let us bear in mind its insistent demand that we renounce our own wills. The discre tion of the Rule consists in this that it discriminates and rules on all matters that concern monastic life and discipline in such a way that the "strong" as well as the "weak" will be governed, not after some rigid pattern or schema but in a way consistent with each one's recognizable individuality (cf. Text of chapter).
Excursus II.
The Abbatial Prelate.—Just as the lay-monk in the after-time gradually devel oped into the priest-monk of today, so the lay-abbot of the Holy Rule grew in to the pontifex, the prince-abbot, and the prelate of the modern age. Today the abbot wears on occasion the (crozier), the mitre, ring, pectoral cross, ca lotte (skull cap), dalmatic, tunic, gloves, and sandals. At the time of St. Bene dict, the abbot was dressed hardly different from the other monks. The earliest abbatial insignia was the staff, a symbol of his fatherly authority. It is possible that in St. Benedict's lifetime both abbots and abbesses already carried it. One of the latest is the pectoral cross. Since the eighth century, one or the other abbot was honored with this or that insignia by the popes, either for himself as a personal distinction or also for his successors. Today an abbot's prelatial and pontifical rights and privileges are minutely prescribed and regulated.
(Whatever else may be said on this score, however, the abbot is still also a monk, whose life must all the more serve as an example and model to other members of his community. The translator)
This development followed quite naturally and logically as monasteries