GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
absolution The forgiveness of sins. Derived from a Latin term meaning “to set free,” it came to refer to the remission granted by the Roman Catholic Church.
actus purus A description of God as a fully actualized being.
aggiornamento The modern effort to present Roman Catholic teaching and practice so that people will better understand and accept them. New approaches in ecumenical dialogue.
Albigensians A medieval French heretical sect that denied Christ’s true humanity, crucifixion, and resurrection believing that salvation was attainable through liberation from physical matter.
Anabaptist(s) Sometimes referred to as “the left wing” of the Protestant Reformation, the name is used to describe most of those groups that were not a part of the Lutheran or Reformed movements. Embraced the baptism of those who professed faith, rejecting infant baptism. Upheld the separation of church and state and the authority of scripture alone. Many were pacifists, and quite a number were executed by other Protestants and Roman Catholics. Ranged from radicals who were mystics and prophets of divine revelation to those who were much more akin to modern baptistic practice.
Anselm (1033-1109) A medieval monk who became Archbishop of Canterbury. His theology was Augustinian, following Plato’s philosophy in building his thought. He asserted that Jesus satisfied the honor and justice of God by atoning for human sin and insisted that faith must precede reason. He also developed the popular ontological argument for God’s existence. His theology has influenced numerous later theologians, including Karl Barth.
anthropomorphism The act or practice of attributing human form or qualities to gods, animals, or things. Used in Christian theology to describe various biblical terms referring human features and qualities to the divine person.
anti-Nicene Against the Council of Nicea and its dogmas (see Nicea).
Apocrypha Literally, “the hidden things” (Greek), and in reference to the Bible the books that sane in the early church received as part of the Greek version of the Old Testament but were not included in the Hebrew Bible. They were included in the Latin translation of the Old Testament known as the Vulgate and thus have been included in the Roman Catholic versions of the Bible.
Aquinas, Thomas (1225-1274) The greatest theologian and philosopher of medieval Christianity, who is best known for his two great summaries of human knowledge. One defended the truth of the Catholic faith against the pagans by clearly distinguishing between reason and faith, and the other summarized all that was known about God and man.
ARCIC II An Anglican-Roman Catholic Consultation that included dialogue aimed at a common understanding of Christian faith. Reviewed critically by Alister McGrath in chapter 10.
Arians (Arius, d. 336) Those who followed the teaching of Arius, a presbyter of the Alexandrian church, believing that the person of Christ is the highest of the created beings and is thus appropriately referred to as god, but not the God.
Aristotle (384-322 b.c.) A Greek philosopher who, though a student of Plato, developed an empirical system of philosophy quite contrary to Plato’s ideas. His philosophy became quite influential on Christian thought in the Middle Ages, leading to the development of a Christian scholasticism.
Aristotelian causality That which is effected by, or caused by, the philosophical influence of Aristotle.
Aristotelian empiricism The teaching, taken from the influence of Aristotle, that all human knowledge is rooted in experience; thus an empirical theology is one built on the observation of religious experience, not on theoretical principles.
Arius’s reductionistic Christology The doctrine of Christ’s person that is reduced from the observations made by Arius (see Arianism above).
Athanasius (293-373) The bishop of Alexandria, who became the chief defender of orthodox Christianity against Arianism. Through his faithful teaching, steadfast character, significant writings, and commitment to God’s truth, he contributed much toward the confessional triumph of historic orthodoxy at the Council of Constantinople eight years after his death.
Bernard A Cistercian abbot (1090-1153) who founded a monastery at Clairvaux. A solitary person of austere habits who sought to combine worship with the service of humanity. He opposed the heretical teaching of Abelard and the teaching of Arnold of Brescia.
catechesis Literally, “to resound” (Greek). Came to be used of written and spoken words, plus visual and audio aids, to pass down the gospel of Christ; thus a catechism is a teaching tool that uses questions and answers to teach the faith
catechumens Literally, “instruction” (Greek); came to refer, in the early church, to the people who were being given catechesis with the specific, ecclesiastical meaning of someone who is receiving formal instruction in the Faith, with a view to reception into the church and full participation in her sacramental life.
Cathari A term applied to several different groups in church history that have emphasized purity of life.
Chalcedonian Christology (doctrine) A Christology, or doctrine of Christ, that accords with the orthodox definition prescribed by the fourth general council of the historic church, the Council of Chalcedon (451): Jesus Christ as fully God and fully man, two distinct natures in one person.
Chemnitz, Martin An important Lutheran theologian (1522-1586) who wrote the most important Protestant critique of the Council of Trent, as well as numerous other evangelical works. A friend of Melanchthon, he helped to reunite the divided Lutheran Church in the Formula of Concord (1577).
conciliarism A fifteenth-century reform movement in the Roman Catholic Church that asserted the authority of general councils over the popes.
concupiscence The tendency or inclination of human nature toward sin arising from the disobedience of Adam and Eve. All persons, except Jesus and Mary (according to Roman Catholic dogma), possess concupiscence, or the desire for bodily pleasure. Concupiscence is not evil, per se, but leads to sin when unchecked.
Constantinopolitan (denouement) Referring to the solutions reached by the Councils of Constantinople (381, 553, and 680-81), which addressed a number of heresies surrounding the doctrine of Christ, including Arianism, Nestorianism, and Monphysitism.
consubstantiation The idea, characteristic of Lutheran theology, that in the Lord’s Supper the bread and the wine are not transformed into the body and blood of Christ but that the molecules of the flesh and blood are present “in, with, and under” the molecules of the bread and wine.
conventicles A conventicle is a religious group or a meeting for worship outside of, and to some degree in protest against, the established church.
Curia A medieval council, or law court, that became the Roman Curia, or the total organization that assists the bishops in their performance of duties for the church. In it are ten congregations in the modern church including education, evangelism, worship, and so chi. Reformed extensively in the post-Vatican II church since 1967.
deification The idea that there is a process by which we are transfigured in the likeness of God.
denouement The solution, clarification, or unraveling of a plot; the outcome or final solution of a sequence of events.
dialectical theology A synonym for neoorthodoxy, a twentieth century reaction against European liberal theology. This term was used especially in the earlier years of neoorthodoxy.
Dionysius A Pope from 259 who was Greek by birth. His was the task of reorganizing the church after the persecution during which his predecessor Sixtus II had been martyred. He sent help to beleaguered Christians in Capadocia and helped to further the concept of the primacy of Rome by resolving a charge of heresy against Bishop Dionysius of Alexandria.
Docetic heresy Docetism is the belief that the humanity of Jesus was not genuine; i.e., He merely appeared to be human.
Dominican A Roman Catholic order of “The Preachers.” From its inception this order stressed the study of the Scriptures and theology.
Donatists A movement of those who followed Donatus, a North African bishop (d. 355), and became a separatist movement that objected to the reinstatement of Christians, especially clergymen, who surrendered the Scriptures under persecution. They sought refuge in views of the end of the age, and the more extreme courted martyrdom.
ecclesiastical Of or having to do with the church or the clergy; i.e., not laypeople.
encyclical A circular letter, especially a papal document in modern times.
Episcopal See An Episcopal diocese or archdiocese.
Erasmus, Desiderius (of Rotterdam) A Dutch humanist (1466-1536) whose work helped to spur the Reformers on in study of the text of Scripture by pointing back to the Fathers and earlier sources and away from scholasticism. Appointed a professor at Cambridge, he would not leave the Roman Catholic Church and was opposed by Luther in his major work, The Bondage of the Will. His writings were banned by two popes.
eschatological prophet Eschatological refers to the study of the last things or of the future generally; thus, Jesus was a prophet of the final age as the term is used in chapter 5.
esoteric theology ESoneric means understood only by a select few; intended for an inner circle as of disciples or scholars.
ex cathedra A term that means, “from the throne” (Latin); used by Roman Catholicism to describe the most solemn and authoritative infallible statements of the church.
existentiell Modern German theologians use two terms, existentiell and existential. Existentiell is used as an adjective in a general sesne to refer to one’s individual, concrete, “life-out” experience. In English this would commonly be the same thing as that meant by the word existential.
existential A philosophy that emphasizes existence over essence; thus, the question “Does it exist” is more important than “What is it?” It is used in chapter 5 either as an adjective or as a noun to speak of a particular tenet of Heidegger’s philosophy or in reference to the characteristic qualities of human existence.
expiations Refers to the cancellation or covering of sin. Expiation contrasts with propitiation, which is appeasing divine wrath.
forensic act of God An act that is legal in form or argument; generally used in referring to justification by faith alone as a forensic action on God’s part in crediting righteousness to the believing sinner based solely on faith.
Gnostic (Gnosticism) Gnosticism was a movement in early Christianity, begun at least as early as the first centuiy, that (1) emphasized a special higher truth that only the more enlightened receive from God, (2) taught that matter is evil, and (3) denied the humanity of Jesus. Several theories of the origins of the movement have been advanced, but most agree that several portions of the New Testament were written to counteract incipient Gnosticism in the church.
hagiography A collection of sacred writings or, more particularly, the writing of saints’ lives.
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich German idealistic philosopher (1770-1831) whose views inspired both absolute realism, which is the theory that all of reality is mental and organic in nature, as well as dialectical materialism, the Marxian interpretation of reality that sees all change as the result of constant conflict between opposites arising from internal conflicts in all events, ideas, and movements.
Hegelian nature With reference to the philosopher noted above, the idea that the world was created by a philosophical evolution, with the meaning of life discernible in the history of the human race.
Heidegger, Martin A German existentialist philosopher (1889-1976), who studied at a Jesuit school for a short period. A follower of Sartre’s thought, his writing influenced radical liberal theologians like Bult-mann, Tillich, and Macquarrie, as well as Karl Barth. His concept of the “existential” moment when man responds to God by choosing “authentic” existence is perhaps his most prominent contribution to theological thought.
Hellenlsm (Hellenistic) Various ideas, ideals, and practices associated with ancient, classical Greece that became part of the culture of the Roman Empire. Hellenism became an important factor in the way in which the church expressed its faith.
Hus, John Bohemian reformer (1373-1415) who studied Wycliffe’s works and sought to call the church back to important biblical doctrines. He was burned at the stake by the civil authorities as a heretic when he would not recant his views even though he had been promised “safe conduct” by the emperor in 1414.
hypostasis From the Greek word for “substance” or “nature,” the real or essential nature of something as distinguished from its attributes. In Christian thought the term is used in reference to any one of the three distinct persons of the Trinity, and especially Christ, the second person of the Trinity, in His divine and human natures.
hypostatic union Referring to he union of Jesus’ divine and human natures in one person.
Ignatius Bishop of Antioch and martyr who died at Rome in 107 a.d. during Trajan’s reign. All we know about him comes from seven of his letters that tell how he was tried and condemned at Antioch by the governor and was escorted across Asia Minor by ten guards and thrown to wild beasts in Rome.
imputed righteousness God’s act of crediting the righteousness of Christ to sinners who believe and accept his gift.
infused righteousness The Holy Spirit’s work in pouring divine grace into the heart and soul of a sinner so that he may have eternal life and divine forgiveness; i.e., the Roman Catholic doctrine of salvation inside the believing person, not outside, as taught by Luther and the Reformers. In Roman Catholic teaching this process begins with regeneration and continues in justification and sanctification.
Irenaeus Bishop of Lyons (130-200). His defense of orthodoxy, Against Heresies, took issue with Gnosticism and Montanism and underlined his claim to be the first great Western theologian. He contributed significantly toward the development of the canon of Scripture.
Justin Christian apologist (100-165) who first brought together the claims of faith and reason. His writings emphasize that Christians are the heirs of God’s promises to Israel.
justification The act by which we are declared righteous through faith alone, by grace alone, in Christ alone.
Kant, Immanuel German philosopher (1724-1804) who sought to unite philosophical rationalism, a strong emphasis upon reason that went beyond Scripture and historic theology, and empiricism, the idea that all knowledge comes through sensory perception or experience.
kenotidsm A theology that emphasizes the self-limitation of Christ or His giving up of divine prerogatives and attributes, often based on improper exegesis of Philippians 2:5-11.
Lydian stone Lydian is (1) of Lydia (an ancient country in western Asia Minor famous for its wealth and luxury), its people, or their language; (2) of the Lydian mode; soft; gentle; effeminate.
Magisterium The Roman Catholic ChurcII’s teaching authority, believed to be instituted by Christ and guided by the Holy Spirit, which seeks to safeguard and explain the truths of the faith.
Manichaeans Those who believed the dualistic philosophy that became a major religion in the ancient world. There was a strong emphasis upon asceticism as a means of salvation.
Mediatrx A title once given to Mary, mother of Jesus. Vatican II declared that Mary may be called by this title as long as it is understood in such a way that it does not take away from or add to the role of Christ as sole Mediator.
medieval synthesis The combination of parts or elements into a whole produced by the medieval developments in church history.
Meritum decondigno Latin, meaning “condign merit.” Merit that is deserving of our own power.
Meritum de congruo Latin, meaning “congruous merit.” Merit that is based on God’s generosity after we have done all that we are able through our own power.
Molinist (view) The theological doctrine proposed by Luis Molina that emphasized human freedom and diminished the efficacy and power of grace. He held that God possesses Sovereign authority in regard to human freedom and contended that without compromising human freedom, God can direct it as it pleases Him because of His knowledge of future conditions.
monastitism The movement within the development of the churcII’s life that sought withdrawal from society into private groups that practice asceticism and other forms of spiritual discipline.
monergism The view that conversion is accomplished totally by the working of God.
Monophysites Those who believed the doctrine that Jesus had only one nature rather than two. It usually takes the form that the humanity of Jesus was absorbed into his deity.
Montanists Those who believe the teachings of Montanus, a Phrygian Christian who fell into a trance and began to “prophesy under the influence of the Spirit.” It came to refer to those with the view that the Holy Spirit continues to speak through prophecy.
neonomian Neonomianism is a movement that arose in the early eighteenth-century Church of Scotland during a controversy over the relationship between law and gospel in salvation. The Neonomians maintained that the gospel is a new law replacing the Old Testament law: the legal conditions of faith and repentance must be met before salvation can be offered.
neoorthodox theology A system of theology associated particularly with Karl Barth, Emil Brunner, and Reinhold Niebuhr. While accepting biblical criticism and a certain amount of existential thought, the movement emphasized divine transcendence as well as human sinfulness and need. It represented a return to modified forms of orthodox doctrines as contrasted with the earlier liberal abandonment of such doctrines.
neoplatonism The recasting of the philosophy of Plato by Plotinus and others. Some Christian theologians used it to expand the truths of Christianity, and its influence lasted into the medieval period.
Neo-Thomist See Thomism.
nonprimatial Refers to a primateship; thus, it has the meaning of the position or rank of a church primate.
omega point One of four points (of a evolutionary theory holding that there are four stages of development in the universe) of French Jesuit Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955) that says, “evolution from individual rational beings to a society with Christ as Lord.”
ontological Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being. What is real? What is ultimate reality beyond everything that seems to be real?
ontological argument A way of reasoning concerning God’s existence. It was first advanced by Anselm of Canterbury (1109). God is said to be a being such that a greater being cannot be thought of. Anyone having such an idea of God and accepting what it means cannot deny that God truly and necessarily exists.
Orphism A religion or philosophical system based on the mysteries and verses attributed to Orpheus.
pantheistic Pantheism is the belief that everything in nature is divine.
Pantokrator From the Greek, meaning ruler of all, Pantocrator is the title given in the Eastern Church to Christ as the Ruler of Heaven and Earth.
patristic age “Patristic” refers to the age during which the Fathers of the church of the first seven or eight centuries wrote—i.e., their lives, doctrines, and writings.
Pelagianism, Pelagians (Pelagius) The view of man embraced through influence of the beliefs of Pelagius, who emphasized human ability and free will rather than depravity and sinfulness. In the view of most Pelagians, it is possible to live without sin. The effect of Adam’s sin upon his descendants was simply that of a bad example. Condemned as heresy by the church.
philosophical paradigm The pattern or example of a view or way of thinking.
pietism A historical movement in the church that stressed the need for faith to be fulfilled in Christian practice, particularly through personal study, prayer, holiness, seriousness, and faithful fulfillment of duties associated with faith.
Plato A Greek philosopher (427-347 b.c.) active in Athens. A disciple of Socrates, he emphasized the reality of the ideal rather than the empirical. Plato has had a profound influence upon Western philosophy and also upon much Christian theology.
Platonic idealism Plato’s confidence in the human mind to find absolute truth; also a longing for a better world and encouragement for a high view of morality.
Plotinus The most noted exponent of neoplatonism (205-270) who held that the material world is unreal. Reality lies beyond life in the union of the soul with the mystical source of all truth, goodness, and beauty. He emphasized that all things have emanated from God.
Polycarp Bishop of Smyrna (70-155). According to Irenaeus, Polycarp was a disciple of the apostle John, and thus his long life was a significant link with the earliest days of the church. A champion of orthodoxy against heresy, notably against Gnosticism, he was burned to death for refusing to recant his faith.
postcondliar After the conciliar movement (see above).
post-Kantian Referring to thought that comes after the influence of Immanuel Kant, referred to above.
post-Nicene Thought that developed after the Councils of Nicea (325).
prereflexive Before thinking or meditating.
prevenient grace The work of the Holy Spirit in preparing a sinner to receive divine illumination and grace.
Rahner, Karl The best-known writing theologian of the Roman Catholic Church in our century (1904-1984). Chapter 5 devotes considerable attention to his thought because it is so important to understanding academic Roman Catholic theology today. He is strongly influenced by Thomism, but his theology is not that of orthodoxy.
rationalism A philosophical stance assigning reason to a determinative role in coming to truth.
Ritschlian liberalism The system of thought attached to the name of Albrecht Ritschl, a German Protestant theologian (1822-1889). It emphasized value judgments rather that theoretical doctrines.
sacerdotalism The teaching that the act of ordination to certain religious offices conveys the ability to administer the sacraments and thus dispense grace to those who take the sacraments.
sacramental grace The idea that a sacrament imparts grace in virtue of the right itself.
sanctification The process by which we are made righteous through faith and the works of love.
sanctifying grace In Roman Catholic theology the grace conveyed by the sacraments, combining both justification and sanctification as defined above.
See In Latin, “chair, or throne”; it thus became a name for a diocese or archdiocese
semi-Pelagianism A doctrinal position developed during the fifth and sixth centuries by theologians who did not wish to adopt the views of Pelagius or Augustine. This term was coined in the sixteenth century to describe Arminianism, which was semi-Pelagian, or a kind of “halfway” position between the two views debated earlier by the church.
sola fide Faith alone.
sola gratia Grace alone.
sola Scriptura The Scripture alone, meaning the written Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments are the sole source of authority for all faith and practice.
Soli Deo gloria Glory to God alone.
solus Christus Christ alone.
Soneriological Of or pertaining to salvation.
synergistic The idea that man works together with God in certain aspects of salvation, for example, faith or regeneration.
Tertullian African Christian apologist (160-220) who was the first great writer of Christian material in Latin. By 210, disillusioned by the low quality of Christian practice, he had become a Montanist, but even the Montanists fell short of his expectations and he reportedly founded his own sect.
Theotokos Literally, “God-bearing,” an expression used of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Theotokos can be used either as an affirmation of the deity of Jesus Christ or as a form of Mariolatry.
Thomistic The system of thought inspired by Thomas Aquinas’s synthesis of Christian doctrine and the philosophy of Aristotle. It includes an emphasis on rational evidences for the existence of God.
Thomistic Aristotelianism A Christian use of Aristotle’s philosophy and ethics, which relied on the thought of Thomas Aquinas (see above).
Traducianism The belief that the human soul is received by transmission from one’s own parents.
Trallians Members of the ancient church (Asia Minor) to whom Ignatius wrote an epistle.
transcendence The transcendence of God is God’s otherness or separateness from the creation and the human race.
Transcendental Thomism The Thomism that desires to be in tune with that which is contemporary.
transubstantiation The Roman Catholic doctrine that the bread and the wine in the Mass actually change into the substance of Christ’s body and blood.
Tridentine That which originated at or developed from the Council of Trent.
unclimatable An unfriendly environment.
via media A Latin word for “a middle way”; thus, a mediate course (especially applied to the Anglican Church as standing halfway between the Roman Catholic and Protestant beliefs).
Vincent of Lerins A French monk and theologian (d. 445) who was a leader of the semi-Pelagian party who opposed Augustine’s views. Upheld Scripture as final arbiter in faith and conduct and offered a threefold test for tradition: “What has been believed everywhere, always, and by all?”
viva voce Latin, “live voice,” thus, a living person.
Waldo, Peter Founded a reform movement in France known as the Wal-densians. His followers were known as “the poor men” because of the stress on living simply. Placed under papal ban in 1184. Rejected doctrines such as purgatory, prayers for the dead, and civil oaths. By the time of the Protestant Reformation most Waldensians, persecuted for centuries, were found in certain Alpine valleys. Today, Waldensianism is still the most prominent representative of Protestantism in Italy.
Whitehead, Alfred North A mathematician and philosopher (1861-1947) whose views have become the fountainhead of process philosophy, which emphasizes progress and evolution, and process theology, which builds theological ideas on the philosophy. Thus, God is in some way evolving, or changing and developing. The influence of this thought is impacting theology very significantly in our time.
Wycliflfe, John English Reformer (1329-1384) who became widely known as rector of Lutterworth in Leicestershire. He was critical of the churcII’s acquisitive attitude to property and questioned it openly. Led in translation of the Bible into English and sought to make right doctrine and practice correspond. Properly called “the morning star of the Reformation.”