Introduction Moe se eee ee ee ed Seas
AON SOON
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Introduction St John of the golden mouth (Chrysostom) lived, served, and preached at a cross-roads in the history of the Christian Church.' He was born about 350 A.D. at Antioch in Syria: a time not long after Constantine had established
Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, and a city where Greek civilization encountered the various cultures of the Near East. The church in Antioch was founded by St Paul, visited by St Peter, and adorned by the episcopate of St Ignatius the God-bearer (martyred about 107). Antioch was the third city of the empire until the rise of Constantinople, with a population of perhaps
300,000, mostly Greeks, but also Syrians, Phoenicians, Romans, Jews, and others. Christianity had to compete with a variety of religions, as well as with the secular attractions of the theaters and the race-course. Earthquakes and Persian invasions were persistent dangers. Antioch prospered because of its position on the trade routes; some families were very rich, though others were very poor, and a majority were in an adequate financial condition.'
John's parents were Christians and prominent citizens, but his father died when John was an infant.
John's mother Anthusa devoted herself to raising her son, providing his basic religious and moral training. He received the standard
1Biographies of St John: D. Attwater, St John Chrysostom, Pastor and Preacher (Milwaukee 1939); Dom C. Baur, O.S.B., St John Chrysostom and His Time (London 1959).
*St John estimated one tenth rich and one tenth poor (Homily on the Gospel of Matthew 66.3, PG 58.630).
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education of late antiquity; his reading list consisted of the great pagan Greek classics. He did not learn any other language, neither the Latin used in the imperial administration nor the Syrian spoken by the people of the local countryside. His teacher Libanius was a famous rhetorician, whose public speeches attracted large audiences. John's own sermons later became a similar form of public entertainment. His classical education also appears in occasional reminiscences of the ancient poets, Homer for example, and more often in allusions to the ane guia such as SE TST 555 fuche that virtue only true good, and wisdom the only source of true freedom. and true wealth.
A Christian childhood in the fourth century did not necessarily include an early baptism, although infant baptism is attested at an earlier date. At this time, however, the children of Christian parents seem usually to have remained among the catechumens. When they reached adulthood and chose to do so, they could be enrolled among the candidates for baptism at the next Easter. Under the influence of the beloved archbishop of Antioch, St Meletius,
John received baptism when he was about twenty years old. Some time in the next few years he was ordained reader. He turned his attention to religious studies, primarily of the Bible, in a school at Antioch which was led by Diodore, later bishop of Tarsus. Among his fellow students was Theodore, later bishop of Mopsuestia. These men developed the Antiochene tradition of explaining the Bible, emphasizing the historical and literal meaning of the text, and limiting the use of allegorical interpretation, which was especially developed by Origen and the exegetes of Alexandria. Another student of the school of Antioch,
Nestorius, was condemned as a heretic by the Council of Ephesus in 431, and his condemnation cast suspicion,
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probably undeserved, on the orthodoxy of Diodore and Theodore. John Chrysostom, for his part, was not interested in the details of theological argument, but used the Antiochene style of exegesis to promote a Christian way of life.
John's mother Anthusa urged him not to leave her to become a monk as long as she was still living. Perhaps it was after her death that he undertook the ascetic life in one of the loosely-organized communities of hermits which had settled in the hills near Antioch. Under the guidance of an old Syrian monk he spent four years in training for the hermit life, then retired to a more isolated cave to live alone. Within two years his excessive austerity forced him to return to Antioch. Perhaps also his time of contemplation had helped him to find his true vocation, as a pastor and teacher. For the next twenty years, approximately, he served the church of Antioch as reader, deacon, and priest.
In his years as reader and deacon he must have come to know the people of the city, as he assisted in liturgical worship, collected and distributed alms, and helped to instruct the catechumens. He knew from experience the sufferings of the poor and the sick, and was struck in contrast by the arrogance of the rich.
In 386, Flavian, who had succeeded Meletius as archbishop of Antioch, ordained John to the priesthood and assigned him to the duty of preaching. As priest, John
—wstially preached on Sundays at the Liturgy, Sometines at the vigil service on Saturday, probably at services on other holy days, and at daily evening services in Lent. He was evidently loved by the people, and his sermons were popular
—though never as popular as the theater or the race-course.
The congregation often interrupted his preaching with applause, but did not necessarily put his advice into practice. He rebuked people for coming to church only for the beginning of the Liturgy and departing with the catechumens after the sermon; he did not want the faithful to
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make listening to his sermons a substitute for participation in the liturgical prayers and the holy Communion. The people expected him to preach a long and eloquent sermon; but this expectation must often have made the service as a whole rather long even by Orthodox standards. Besides preaching and administering the sacraments, John gave spiritual guidance to his people individually; he mentions urging them to read the Bible regularly. We know of some of the public crises through which he, with his bishop, led the people; his pastoral care must have been felt also in many private crises.
John's priestly service at Antioch was brought to a sudden end when St Nectarius, the patriarch of Constantinople, died in 397. That was the beginning of John's unwilling involvement in the politics, ecclesiastical and secular, of the imperial capital, and the beginning of his troubles. He was kidnapped from Antioch, for fear that the people would prevent his removal, and received episcopal consecration in 398. We do not know how strongly he may have objected, but he does not seem to have been given a choice. The common people of Constantinople, like the people of Antioch, accepted him. His enemies were ambitious prelates, courtiers, and the empress Eudoxia.
Theophilus the Pope of Alexandria, who had opposed John's election to the see of Constantinople, bore him a grudge. Eudoxia suspected John of attacking her when he denounced luxury and license. Suffice it to say that John was sent into exile, continuing to encourage his faithful friends by his correspondence when he could not address them in person. He died on 14 September 407, still giving glory to God.
During his priesthood in Antioch, St John preached his series of sermons on the parable of Lazarus and the rich man, perhaps in 388 or 389.° He began on 2 January,
*PG 48.963-1054.
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referring to the riotous celebrations of the Saturnalia on the previous day, which marked the beginning of the civil year. While the parties, carousing, and entertainments went on, faithful members of the church had been listening to John exhort them to do everything for God's glory.'
Now they were back for the second day, and he introduced the parable. On the next two occasions, probably the next two Saturdays or Sundays, he continued to preach on the parable. The fourth time, he told his congregation, he would have finished explaining the parable if it had not been necessary to praise the local martyrs St Babylas and Saints Juventinus and Maximinus. The feast day of St Babylas is 24 January, about three weeks after the first sermon on Lazarus; Juventinus and Maximinus were honored a few days later. On the next occasion after that, St John concluded with the fourth sermon on the parable. A week later, probably, he began the fifth sermon of the series by saying that he could speak more on the parable, but to keep his hearers from being surfeited he would discuss another text instead.
The sixth and seventh sermons were given later on, but while the parable was still on his mind and his congregation's—perhaps later the same year. The sixth was preached after an earthquake, when it seemed timely to speak of God's judgment and the necessity of choosing the right way of life before it was too late. The seventh sermon begins as an admonition to those who frequent the racecourse, with the text, "Enter by the narrow gate;" Lazarus and the rich man came easily to the preacher's mind as travellers by the narrow way and the easy road respectively.
The parable of Lazarus and the rich man enabled St John to treat several of his favorite themes. First of all, there is the age-old question, why do we see righteous
*PG 48.953-961.
®PG 50.527-533, 571-578.
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people suffering while sinners live in prosperity? From this there follows the moral question, what does God expect of us, rich and poor? In more general terms, how do we attain salvation? The first four sermons treat the text of the parable verse by verse and discuss these questions along the way.
In the first sermon, St John deals with the lives of Lazarus and the rich man (Luke 16:19-21). The parable passes over the moral qualities of the two men, so St John must discuss what is wrong with the life of luxury and what is good about the life of poverty. Are all the rich condemned and all the poor saved? No, although the poor have a better chance. The rich man's chief fault was his failure to give alms; he neglected the duty of helping his neighbor.
In addition he harmed his own spiritual health by his self-indulgent way of life. Lazarus, on the other hand, by enduring patiently without complaint used his sufferings to build up his spiritual strength. Although St John does not deny that poverty is a misfortune, he says nothing about trying to escape from it. He is concerned with spiritual, not material well-being. If we wish to store up treasure in heaven, we must both observe the commandment of love towards our neighbor and practice the asceticism appropriate to our circumstances for the benefit of our own souls.
The second sermon moves along to the deaths of the two men (Luke 16:22-24). Death reveals who was truly rich and who was truly poor. The man who lived alone receives an honor guard of angels; the other man has lost all his followers and lies alone in hell. St John has more to say here about the positive duties of the rich: they must hold their property as stewards for the poor, and must share their wealth without regard to the moral qualities of those who are in need. If we spend more than necessary on ourselves, we deserve the same penalty as if we had stolen the money. St John does not say that we must sell everything and give it to the poor; he is addressing those who are not
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called to the monastic life, but those who must find a Christian way of living in the world. Like others of the Fathers, he makes it clear that private property is not a Christian idea, however valid it is in law.* "His goods are not his own, but belong to his fellow servants." In another sermon St John goes so far as to suggest a return to the apostolic practice of holding the property of Christians in common; but he realizes that his hearers are not ready for so radical a change, even within the Christian community.'
Of course there would have been no way for his hearers to alter the economic and social organization of the Roman
Empire; so we cannot expect St John to offer a political program. He concentrates realistically on the opportunities for good works, alms-giving and hospitality, which were (and are) open to each person.'
In the third sermon, St John takes up the rich man's first petition, that Lazarus should bring him a drop of water, and Abraham's response (Luke 16:24-26). What is the relation between our misfortune or prosperity in this life and our condition in the life to come? Can we earn our way to heaven by our sufferings, voluntary or involuntary, in this life? Not exactly, according to St John; but earthly sufferings, if endured with patience, can help us get rid of some of our sins and the punishment due to us for them.
He uses metaphors of washing or dissolving our sins away, as well as judicial and financial expressions (paying a penalty or a debt). Every one of us has some sins, no matter how good we are; but if the general trend of our life is virtuous, we can finish our necessary suffering before we die. Besides, we need to train ourselves in virtue in ®See C. Avila, Ownership:
Early Christian Teaching (New York: Maryknoll, 1983).
"Homily on the Acts of the Apostles 11.3, PG 60.96-98.
*For information on Byzantine almsgiving, see D. Constantelos, Byzantine Philanthropy and Social Welfare (New Brunswick, New
Jersey, 1968).
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order to become the kind of people God wants us to be.
If we are poor or chronically ill, the effort of patient endurance with thanksgiving is sufficient asceticism. If we both to overcome our sinful inclinations and to develop a Es gh are rich and healthy, we must practice voluntary austerity virtuous character. Is this salvation by works? The opposition of works and faith is not an issue for the Greek
Fathers. Of course it is God's grace which saves us, as St John prays at the end of each sermon. Grace assists our own will to foster righteousness in us. As a pastor and teacher of morals, St John concentrates on what we ourselves are expected to do.
RD PS a, ci In concluding the third sermon, St John speaks of the great chasm which separates heaven from hell. This raises the issue of intercessory prayer for the dead. The Fathers of the Orthodox Church generally teach, with the support of Biblical texts like this, that we must make our choice for or against God in this life, and that once we have passed to the other life we will have no opportunity to escape from hell. Thus St John here tells his congregation that, if they have not made their own efforts to acquire virtue during their lives, they must not expect to be saved by the prayers of others, whether of their spiritual father or of any saintly relative. Nevertheless the Church traditionally prays for the dead, a practice which St John's discussion assumes.
What good do our prayers for the dead accomplish? We can probably help those who are still being purified and growing in the knowledge and love of God (the Orthodox
Church does not claim to know for certain what sort of purgatorial suffering there may be); as for those in hell, most of the Fathers say that our prayers are able to lessen their suffering but not actually to release them.' St John,
*Bishop Kallistos of Diocleia (Kallistos Ware), "'One Body in Christ': Death and the Communion of Saints," Sobornost/ECR
3:2 (1981) 179-191.
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following his Master, wishes here to impress upon his hearers the necessity of entering the way of righteousness in this life.
The fourth sermon takes up the rich man's second request, that Lazarus should visit his brothers (Luke 16:27-31). If we do not receive visitors from the hereafter, as why should we believe in a iudgment after death? In the st place, we have Moses and the prophets, and all the holy Scriptures. Secondly, reason tells us that if God is just, and if people do not get their deserts in this life, then there must be a time for recompense after death.
Thirdly, God must have given us a conscience for some purpose. Conscience should induce us to admit our sins
(apparently St John is thinking of confession made privately to God, sacramental confession before a priest not having yet become a general custom). If we repent and confess our sins, God will forgive us, heal us, and help us to become righteous. The theme of conscience reminds
St John of Joseph and his brothers. The brothers were accused by their own conscience even before they had recognized Joseph in Egypt. Joseph himself, like Lazarus, provides an example of patient trust in God's providence.
St John concludes by summarizing what he has been saying in these four sermons: if we have sinned (as we all have), we must repent and confess, we must give alms and practice virtue in order to put away our sins and prepare ourself for the life of heaven.
Some time later, probably the same year, an earthquake caused damage, casualties, and distress at Antioch. St John begins to preach by saying that they have spent three days in prayer but now the earthquake is past. This sermon is longer and less well organized than any of the earlier four.
One might suspect that St John is speaking extemporaneously, using ideas that are fresh in his mind or suggested to him by the situation. He recognizes that his theme is familiar also to his hearers, but asks them to listen patiently.
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He frequently asks for attention; he frequently has to recall himself to the subject. The earthquake, he says, should make us mindful of God's judgment, which we have escaped for the time being. The poor must practice patience, the rich must give alms. Everyone must seek virtue—rich and poor, men and women, free people and slaves. At this point St John digresses on the origin of slavery. All human beings were created free, he says, Eve as well as Adam.
Slavery was introduced by the sin of Ham, who saw Noah's nakedness and incurred his father's curse. From a Christian point of view, the real slave is the person who is a captive of sin; a virtuous slave is really free. Here St John is using the kind of paradox which was popularized by the Stoic philosophers. The theme of slavery then reminds him of Onesimus, a slave whose virtue brought him freedom.
St John does not go so far as to say that Christians should free their slaves, though pious Byzantines often did so in their wills or when entering monastic life.° Society was not ready for a general emancipation of slaves. As for us, are we ready to accept all human beings as free children of God, whatever their social class or manner of employment (or unemployment)? ed & y we O wt ~
S N aA uv The sermon returns to the familiar themes of the recompense received by Lazarus and the rich man. The reward for the rich man's good deeds was given to him in this life, to keep it from reducing his punishment hereafter.
He could have helped himself if he had shared his prosperity; as it is, he has no claim for relief in his torment.
The penalty for Lazarus' sins, whatever they were, was imposed in this life, in order that it might not detract from his blessedness hereafter. At the very end of the sermon,
St John adds the possibility that someone may incur suffering in this life which outweighs his sins; in that case
See the index of Constantelos, Byzantine Philanthropy and Social Welfare, under "slaves, freeing of."
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he arrives in heaven with a credit toward righteousness.
This presumably gives him greater blessedness among the blessed ones in heaven.
The final sermon on the parable of Lazarus and the rich man begins with a denunciation of those who frequent the race-course. The text is, "Enter by the narrow gate"
(Matthew 7:13-14). Why was the race-course so serious a problem? There may have been gladiatorial combats as well as chariot races, or at least fights between gladiators and animals.
Perhaps there were unseemly "half-time shows." St John says that Christians who were seen at the races set a bad example for prospective converts. Besides, they were wasting their time, and, above all, nullifying the work of spiritual training which they had undertaken in the church. Perhaps, like some people nowadays, they were making sport a substitute for religion, with their zealous attachment to one charioteer or another. In any case, they were walking on an easy road and would come to a bad end. The easy road and the narrow gate remind the preacher of his two favorite examples of travellers: the rich man on the easy road and Lazarus on the difficult road.
In addition to what he has said before, he treats the question whether wealth really is a good thing, whether poverty really is evil. Again he uses a paradox of the Stoic type.
The rich man received in his lifetime what he believed to be good, but he did not realize that some other things were much better. Lazarus, on the other hand, while receiving what the rich man considered evil (poverty and ill-health), looked beyond the appearances and strove for the truly good things, namely virtue and his heavenly reward.
KES SAS The first four sermons have previously been translated into English by F. Allen," whose version I have consulted.
In general, however, the present translation is new, made Four Discourses of Chrysostom, chiefly on the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, translated by F. Allen, B.A. (London 1869).
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from the text published by Migne (PG 48.963-1054). I have omitted the fifth sermon as well as some other passages which are not directly relevant to the problems of wealth and poverty. For quotations from the Bible I have used the Revised Standard Version except when the sense of the sermon required a different rendering. For the Old
Testament, St John of course used the Greek text (Septuagint), and no special mention of this is made in the notes.
I wish to thank, for help and support of various kinds, Bishop Kallistos of Diocleia, Father John Meyendorff,
Jeannette Baird, Wendy O'Donnell, Pam O'Keefe, Lawrence Stevens, and my family, Nathaniel, Margaret, and Father Gregory Roth.
—Catharine P. Roth Bicester, England May 1984