Introduction II
INTRODUCTION
I. THE LETTERS
In THE BENEDICTINE edition of Montfaucon,! the correspondence of Athanasius with Serapion concerning the Holy Spirit is arranged in four letters. There is every reason to believe that this is not the original form of the material. To begin with, the fourth letter, as Montfaucon gives it, clearly falls into two parts: 1-7, which is the final letter of this correspondence, and 8-23, which is an exposition of Matthew 1232 and has no connexion with it at all. In uniting them, Montfaucon follows his usual authorities, the Paris MSS.R and S. But the collection of twenty-eight works, found in the BK A and UWL groups, preserves
IV.8—23 as a separate treatise; while 1—7 is not found in the collection at all. Even in RS a marginal note preserves what appears originally to have been a title to 8-23. Moreover, internal evidence confirms the independence of these chapters. No reference is found there to the controversy with the Tropici. It is the Arian blasphemy against the Son that forms the target for Athanasius's exposition. Indeed, rvedpua éytov in Matthew 1232 is taken to refer not to the Holy Spirit at all, but to the Godhead of Christ as opposed to His humanity. This is the @ Published at Paris in 1698, and reprinted with additions at Padua in 1777, and in Migne's Pat.Gr.(25-8). Among earlier editions and translations the following are noteworthy :
Epistle 1 was the second of eight works translated by Omnibonus and published at Vicenza in 1482. The translation is slightly condensed.
In his translation of ten works, published at Basle in 1527, Erasmus has III and IV, styled respectively I and II, ff.304 and 307 ; Quicunque dixerit (IV.8-23), f.400 ; and I, entitled simply de Spiritu Sancto, f.410.
Peter Nannius, at Basle in 1556, prepared his own (highly inaccurate) translation of I and II, and for III and IV reproduced that of Erasmus. £9. II is in Tom.1,
297-302, after the anti-Arian works, under the title of : "Compendium e superioribus descriptum contra eos qui dicunt Spiritum Sanctum creaturam esse'. 1 is in Tom.3,
664-86 ; III and IV in Tom.4, 64-9.
In the editio princeps, Commeliniana, of the Greek text, published at Heidelberg in 1600, under the editorship of Peter Felckmann, the inverted order of II and I is maintained, Tom.1, 338-44 and 344-71. III and IV are found in Tom.2, 20-9.
The translations are taken from the edition of Nannius.
The great Paris edition of 1627 is a reproduction of the Commelin.
THE LETTERS OF ST. ATHANASIUS
more striking inasmuch as he has already, in I.33 and III.7, taken the words in the usual sense and applied the passage to the Tropici. We may safely conclude, therefore, that IV.8-23 belongs to an earlier period in Athanasius's ministry. RS show abundant traces of literary editing; and no doubt the redactor responsible was led by the citation of Matthew 1232 in these letters, together with the likeness between the opening of Ep. I and IV.8, to tack on 8-23 as a sort of appendix to the correspondence.* A further problem arises with regard to the relation of I, II, and III. In the collection of twenty-eight works referred to above, I and II stand together, but III and IV are not included. These letters reach us through another collection, which Opitz calls the 'middle corpus'. As these collections can be traced back to the sixth and seventh centuries, and as the edition represented by RS is ultimately derived from them, it is obvious that this division is very ancient.* There is other evidence to show that I and II were, at an early date, closely connected. Severus of Antioch, c. Impium Grammaticum, fr.168B, quotes from II.8 as though it belonged to the first letter; and the two are counted as one work in the Armenian corpus.* Moreover, the title of II in RS is found in the margin of B, which would suggest that it existed first as a marginal gloss. But when we come to examine the contents of the letters, it is obvious that II is far more closely connected with III than with I. In answer to a request from Serapion,
Athanasius promises (II.1) that he will abridge the contents of I.
Instead, however, he goes on to give a statement of the doctrine of the Son. Now the explicit reference to the Spirit in II.1 makes it certain that Athanasius Is referring to the preceding letter, and not, as Felckmann supposed, to ¢. Arianos, I-III. In any case, II is not a summary of that work or of any other. In ITI.1 he explains why he has begun
by giving an account of the Son, and goes on to make the promised 1? See Stuelcken, Athanasiana, pp.59-60. He also notes the following points : the doxology at the end of IV.7(189) suggests the formal conclusion of the letter; the reference to the Gospels and Psalms in IV.23, from which Tillemont inferred a connexion between this work and the ad Marcellinum ; the 'pathetic' style in which Athanasius writes, as contrasted with the more robust and forceful character of — these letters ; the respectful attitude to Origin and Theognostus in 9—11 which suggests an early date. In the present work we shall henceforward refer to IV.8-23 as 'Quic.dix', 1-16.
Nore.—The bold figures refer to page numbers in this book ; thus IV.7(189) = Fourth Letter, paragraph 7, page 189.
3 See Opitz, Untersuchungen.
¢ ibi2.173, a
INTRODUCTION
abridgement of Ep. I. Thus III.1 takes up the promise made at the beginning of II. The conclusion of II, moreover, is very abrupt, and there is no doxology. As Montfaucon saw,' this makes it very probable that originally II and III were one letter containing a brief statement of Athanasius's teaching on the Trinity. But as II formed by itself a short and self-contained exposition of the duoovetoy it was detached from III (which adds nothing at all to the contents of I) and incorporated with I in the collection of twenty-eight works.
'Thus the correspondence originally consisted of three fetes In the first, Athanasius takes cognizance of the new heresy and answers its arguments as Serapion has described them. He deals firstly with the passages of Scripture to which they appeal, notably Amos 413 and 1 Timothy 521 (3-14). He then turns to an argument based on the relationship of the three divine Persons. If the Spirit proceeds from the Father, He must be the Son's brother. If He belongs to the Son, the Father is His grandfather. Turning to the alternative, that the Spirit is a creature, he shows that the ministry and operation of the Godhead is one, hence the Godhead Himself must be one
(15-21). There follows an examination of Scripture to show that the Spirit belongs to God and not to the creatures (21-7). The letter ends with an appeal to tradition (28), a discussion of the consequences for faith of regarding God as dyad rather than as Triad (29-30), and further texts.
II-III is designed for a wider purpose than that suggested to Athanasius by Serapion. II.1—9 contains a summary of the doctrine of the Son, using the same arguments applied in I to the Spirit, and with an exposition of the duoodvotoy (3), and of Proverbs 822 and of Mark
1332. [1I.1—7 is a summary of I.22-33.
In ITI, Athanasius makes no allusion to the argument of the Tropici outlined and answered in I.15—21. Serapion, in announcing the persistence of the heresy, draws his attention to this omission, and Athanasius remedies it by writing 1V.1-7, which is, however, an independent work rather than a summary of the corresponding section in I.
The authenticity of these letters has not been disputed by any modern student of Athanasius. Erasmus, however, i in his translation, treats III and IV only as genuine. He adds a version of I as a kind of appendix to the other works, with the following comment:
DP Migne, Pat.Gr.26.526—7.
THE LETTERS OF ST. ATHANASIUS
Salvo et integro doctorum iudicio, ego censeo hoc opus esse hominis otiost, nulloque ingenio praediti, qui voluerit imitari divi Athanasu libellos ad Serapionem. Hic mira congeries locorum et rationum confusio, molestissimaque semel dictorum tteratio.
He adds a further note at the conclusion to the effect that I is followed in the MS. by another /bellus: 'eiusdem phraseos, quem piguit vertere.'
Such hasty and subjective criticism was characteristic of Erasmus. We may compare his rejection of the conclusion of Basil's de Spiritu
Sancto. In this case he receives a merited castigation from Montfaucon.® That the style of these letters is heavier and less attractive than that of Athanasius's best works will readily be admitted. But it must be remembered that it was written under very difficult circumstances, and that the writer himself' regards it as needing correction and polish.
Parts of it are little more than a series of Scriptural quotations. As Montfaucon says, to complain of a stiff and heavy style in the handling of such material, 'idipsum sit quod nodum in scirpo quaerere'. If further proof is needed, the reader is referred to the notes, which illustrate at many points the close connexion in thought and language between these letters and the other works of Athanasius.
Apart from isolated references in later works,® we cannot be certain that Athanasius ever wrote anything further on the doctrine of the Spirit. Few genuine works survive from the last decade of his ministry.
Had we, for instance, his correspondence with Basil, the story might be different. As it is, two works which Montfaucon thinks genuine
_ and dates after 362 fall to be considered. The de Incarnatione et contra Arianos deals with the Godhead of the Spirit, 9-10 and 13-19; and the de Trinitate et Spiritu Sancto, which survives only in Latin, is chiefly a series of proof texts in support of that doctrine. The two works are closely connected; without being a transcript, one of them is clearly dependent upon the other.® The de Inc. et c. Ar. is attested by 16 Praef.i4.
7 cf. 1.1(61).
8e.g. ad Ant.3, ad Fov.4, ad Afros, 11.
® cf. de Inc.et c.Ar.9,998c-10,1000B with de Trin.et Sp.S. 19, 1213a-B ; 1000c- "10018 with 16,1207c-1208B ; 13,1005B—c with 11,1201c—1202a ; 1005c with 12,12028 ; 14,1008c-1009a4 with 5,1195n-c; 15,1009a-B with 17,1210c-— 18,1210c ; 17,1011c-1013a with 9,1199B ; and 1013a-18,1016a with 10,1200B11,12018 (an exact transcript). Stuelcken, pp.63—4, is probably right in thinking that the de Inc.et c.Ar. is more likely to be dependent on de Trin.et Sp.S. than vice versa. The writer of the former work quarries parts of the latter, interfering with the order, abbreviating, and occasionally introducing lections or comments of his own. The arrangement of the material is less coherent and satisfactory than in de Trin.et Sp.S.
INTRODUCTION
15.
'Theodoret, Dialogus I, and by Gelasius, de Duabus Naturis, but there are serious objections to its authenticity.!° The external evidence for de Trin. et Sp. 8. is not good. It is found in two Paris MSS., tacked on to a Latin confession of faith which is itself an appendix to eight
Libelli de Trinitate, bearing the name of Athanasius, but being in fact Latin works credited by Montfaucon to one Idatius, and by others to Vigilius Tapsensis.4 On the other hand, it is certainly from the Greek, and it must be earlier than 380.1% The opening section is very close to the beginning of ad Ser. I, as far as language goes, and 2-5 have affinities with I.13—14. As far as we can judge from the indifferent rendering, the style has something of Athanasius's vigour, and some characteristic turns of phrase are to be found.® But the impression made by a study of both the works is that their exegesis of passages relating to the Spirit belongs with that of Didymus rather than with the exegesis we find in these letters. It is not merely that we find passages such as Acts 53-4, 131-4, Matthew 1228 and Luke 1 120 used as they are used in his de Spiritu Sancto.* The characteristic Athanasian approach to the doctrine of the Spirit through that of the Son is abandoned, _ and we have an exposition that correlates in great detail the the attributes and activities of all three Persons.!® It is, of course, not impossible that Athanasius should have anticipated these later developments; not impossible that he should have advanced to the use of modawaoy
See Bright, Later Treatises, pp.143-5, Hoss, pp.127-8, and Stuelcken, pp-61-6. The objection to the exegesis of Proverbs 822 in 6 is peculiarly strong.
Athanasius does indeed modify his interpretations, but always to gain some controversial advantage. That he should go out of his way to offer so drastic a modification of an exegesis so often presented is unthinkable. See on II.7(162). Moreover, if ° the authenticity of the earlier sections of de Inc.et c.Ar. be allowed, it is hard to resist Stuelcken's conclusion that the paragraphs 9-19 form no part of the original work. The unity and authenticity of the book are, however, defended by Weigl,
Untersuchungen zur Christologie, pp.150-8.
11 See Migne, Pat.Gr.28, 1433, etc.
12 (a) The de Inc.et c.Ar. is allowed by Bright and Stuelcken to be early. (b) Although directed against Pneumatomachi who were orthodox on the Son, the term
"Macedonians"is not used. See Intro.III(22=5). (c) Ambrose is dependent upon this work in his de Sp.S. cf. ibid.1.23 and de Trin. et Sp.S. 1; 95 and 17 ; 140 and 18 ; 149-50 and 19; 11.34 and 8 ; II.50 and 20; III.14 and 21. Ambrose was certainly acquainted with the Quic.dix. (cf. ibid.I.47), but there is no conclusive evidence that he knew these letters. His de Sp.S. is usually dated early in 381. e.g. 'Aut si audieritis...', 4 ; "impium, vel in sensum subire', 8; 'plane mirabile',
10.
M4 de Trin. et Sp.S.12 and de Sp.S.18 ; 10 fin. and 23 ; 21 and 20.
% cf. especially de Trin.et Sp.S. 10-12.
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in a sense approximate to that of the Latin persona.1* The question can only be settled after a thorough study of the work. Until then the verdict of Robertson" and Stuelcken*® must stand and the de Trin. et
Sp. 8. be regarded as one of the 'dubia'.
II. DATE OF THE LETTERS
Tue beginning, at least, of this correspondence falls within the third exile of Athanasius, between February 356 and the death of Constantius, November 361. If, as is almost certain, Patrophilus is referred to in IV.7, then that letter was probably written not much later than the spring of 361.
From Epiphanius, Haer. lxxiii.26, we learn that one Ptolemaeus was present at Seleucia-in 359 as bishop of Thmuis. Were we entitled to assume from this that Serapion was by this time dead, the problem of dating these letters would be easier. But it is no less likely that he had been exiled or merely deprived. Moreover, there is some evidence to show that he was alive after this date. In ps.Leontius, adv. Fraudes
Apollinaristarum, there is a fragment of a letter from Apollinarius to Serapion commending a communication sent by Athanasius to Corinth on the Christological question. This can only refer to ad Epictetum.
Unfortunately the date of this work is doubtful. Raven? puts it as early as 360 or 361, Robertson' in 364, and Lietzmann in 370.' But even if Raven be right, and the statements in ad Epictetum 1 answer to the account of the Council of Ariminum given in de Syn., Serapion cannot have been dead by the autumn of 359. As it is, the evidence we have points to a later rather than an earlier date in the exile.
(i) Athanasius was in the desert, eagerly sought for by his enemies (I.1). Apparently Athanasius did not really retire from Alexandria until late in 358. The Festal Index speaks of him as concealed in the city during 357-8. In the late summer of the latter year feeling was running so high against the Arians that George was ejected, and the Orthodox actually regained possession of the churches for a few weeks.
16 cf. de Tr.et Sp.S.11, "ex persona Patris', etc. But cf. de Inc.et c.Ar.2, where the use approximates more closely to that of Athanasius in de Dec.14 and c.Ar.1.54.
7 [ntro.lxiv.
18 Athanasiana, p.76.
12 See on IV.7(188). Montfaucon puts the letters in 358 ; Le Bachelet in the following year, "contemporaneous with the Orations' ; Swete, 'probably near the end of 359'; Robertson in the same year, though with less assurance. He thinks that de Syn. may have been written first. Loofs thinks that Zp. I may be as late as the summer of 361 ("Macedonianism,' £.R.£.).
3 Apollinarianism, pp.103-7.
3 in loc. and Intro.lxiv.
— * Apollinaris, p.279.
INTRODUCTION
a7 Then the attitude of the authorities stiffened, and in December _ Sebastian entered Alexandria. The Fest. Ind. (xxxii) speaks of a search for Athanasius conducted by Artemius in 359-60. We know that his inquiries extended as far as Tabenne.® It seems most likely that Athanasius is here referring to his activities.
(ii) Athanasius does not need to add anything to what he has already written against the Arians (1.2). This must mean that c. 4r. I-III had already been written and circulated. If this work is to be assigned to the third exile, as the older commentators thought, we have an additional reason for putting back the date of these letters. But Stuelcken
(pp. 46-50) has given very cogent reasons for putting their composition much earlier, and Loofs would put it back perhaps as far as 338.8
But, even so, the literary output of the first two years of the exile, bearing in mind the circumstances, was very considerable,' and makes it less likely that these letters were started before the second half of 358.
(iii) The letters are written against certain persons who had left the Arians. It is not stated when this defection occurred, and changes of side were frequent throughout the whole period. But it is at least plausible to assume that it had taken place no long time before Serapion wrote to Athanasius. Such a movement away from Arianism is best connected with the reaction against George's misrule in _ September—October 358.
(iv) The mention of the 'Eunomii' in IV.5 points in the same direction. During his visit to Alexandria, 356-8, Eunomius appears to have occupied a very subordinate position as Aetius' secretary.® It was only later, after his departure to Antioch, that he came to the front asan Anomoean leader.
(v) Finally, we have to consider the relation between these letters and the de Synodis. The emphasis upon the personal subsistence of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in I.28; the stringent qualification of Spovos in 11.3 imit.; and the interpretation given to the dpoodvator there, suggesting the equality rather than the unity of the three
Persons: these points suggest that the mind of Athanasius was already responding to the impulse that inspired the de Synodis. 'The reference
115 See Vita Pachomit, 88.
6 'Athanasius', H.R.£.11.200.
7 Ad Episcopos, 356 ; de Fuga and Ap.ad Constantium, 357 ; Historia Arianorum, 357-8. There is also the refutation of Arianism mentioned in ad Monachos I and de Morte Arii, which Felckmann identified with ad Ser.II, besides a number of letters.
8 See D.C.B.11.287.
S.A.—2
THE LETTERS OF ST. ATHANASIUS
to Eudoxius Acacius and Patrophilus in IV.6 and 7 also suggests a parallel with that work, for these three names are equally prominent there. This does not, of course, mean that these letters necessarily follow the de Synodis. Nor can we be certain at what date Athanasius became aware of the possibility of a rapprochement with Basil of Ancyra and the rest. But it certainly suggests that no long time separates them.
We therefore conclude that the letters can scarcely have been begun before the summer of 358; that much of the evidence leads us to put them several months later in 359 or early in 360. It is less likely that they were written at any later date. It does not seem possible to reach a more definite conclusion.
III. WHO WERE THE TROPICI?
As Athanasius observes at the beginning of these letters (1.2), the Arian doctrine of the Son necessarily involves that the Spirit is a creature. If the Son differs in essence from the Father, so likewise must the Spirit. If the Second Person in the Trinity had a beginning, how much more the Third! If the Son is capable of moral progress and declension, then the Spirit also is holy, not by nature and essence, but by grace.
Yet the issue was not debated in the earlier stages of the controversy. The Creed of Nicaea stopped abruptly at the words: 'and in the Holy Spirit." How far Arius himself took account of the Spirit in his doctrine is doubtful. The indications are that he only treated the subject incidentally. His silence, if silence it was, need not be attributed to policy.? Arianism only followed the line of development taken by Monarchianism. It was inevitable that the new heresy should first be formulated in terms of the Son of God, and that the controversy should spend its first strength about that centre.
But the issue could not indefinitely be avoided. Moreover, the first half of the fourth century saw a revival of interest in the office and work of the Spirit, which, under the influence of asceticism, began to recover from the neglect into which the development of the Logos doctrine in the second century had brought it. The first stirrings of this revival can already be noticed in Methodius'; further evidence comes ut cf. c.Ar.1.6 and de Syn.15, and Harnack, H.D.IV.19.
2 As Swete attributes it (H.S.4.C.165).
cf. Harnack, ibid.108, and see note on I.9(82).
4e.g. Conv.ili.8. See Swete, op.cit.147 etc.
INTRODUCTION
later in the synodal pronouncements of the period and in the Catechetical Lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem.' Both creeds and lectures were predominantly the work of Conservatives, and we observe in them a clear and deliberate attempt to avoid any inquiry into the Spirit's
Person and origin. But the emphasis laid upon His teaching and sanctifying ministry must have stimulated more interest in His Person than Cyril's admonitions suppressed. How soon Arian propaganda turned its attention to the subject we cannot say. There are some indications that Asterius touched on it.* Certainly, when writing these letters, Athanasius takes it for granted that both Homoeans and Anomoeans call the Spirit a creature.'
But it may well have been that the first shots in the engagement were fired from the Nicene camp. Marcellus not only brought the Spirit within the scope of his theological system,® but developed a doctrine of His double procession, from the Son as well as from the Father; and used it to prove that the Father and the Word cannot eternally be two hypostases.® Eusebius tries to refute him by showing: firstly, that John 15:6 etc. refer only to the mission and not to the procession of the Spirit; secondly, that the same Gospel clearly asserts the hypostasis of the Spirit; thirdly, that the Spirit is in fact the creature
1115 The text of these creeds is preserved in de Syn.21-30. For comment upon them, see Harnack, H.D.IV.111-12 and Swete, op.cit.166-9. For the reticence of Cyril, cf. Cat.xvi.2, 5, 24. There is, however, no trace of subordinationism in his teaching.
The Spirit receives honour with the Father and the Son (Cat.iv.16).
6 See note on 1.2(64).
? There is little evidence to go upon, but the following facts have significance.
In 356, or a little later, Lucifer of Cagliari, in his de Regibus Apostaticis (Migne,
Pat.L.13,807D), charges Constantius with believing that the Spirit is from nothing.
The same charge is made against the Arians by Athanasius himself, c.Ar.III.15.
The date of c.Ar.I-III is uncertain, but the references to Constantius in I.10 and TII.28 make it sure that, whenever it was written, the work was either issued or reissued after 356. In 362 the Council of Alexandria anathematized those 'who say that the Holy Spirit is a creature and separate from the essence of Christ. For this is in truth a complete renunciation of the abominable heresy of the Arians, to refuse to divide the holy Triad or to say that any part of it is a creature' (T.ad Ant.3). To the same period, possibly a little earlier, belongs the eighth epistle of Basil, which was written against those who believe the Son and the Spirit to be creatures. The doctrine of the Council of Alexandria is insisted upon by Apollinarius in a letter which was almost contemporary with it (among the correspondence of Basil, Ep. ccelxiv). In his Liber Apologeticus, written very little later, Eunomius specifically declares the Spirit to be a creature (25).
8 See Basil, Ep.cclxiii. According to Theodoret, Fab.Haer.I1.18, he calls the Spirit wagéxtaow tic éxtdcews. See Harnack, H.D.IV.112, note 1.
9 Eusebius, Ecc. Theol.I11.4—5. See on 1.2(64).
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of the Son. For this last point he reproduces Origen's exegesis of John 13 from his Commentary (11.10). It was perhaps inevitable that this particular exposition should be brought out at some stage of the controversy. But it was none the less disastrous, and it is an indication of the mediocrity of Eusebius's mind. Not only does he ignore the hesitation and reserve with which Origen offers this interpretation," he wrenches it out of its proper context in the subtly balanced theology of that great thinker, wherein the Word—and, by implication, the Spirit—mediates between God and His creation." Worst of all, he hurls it into a controversy which could never have arisen at all had not the system of Origen been thrown over and a line drawn between God and the creature such as he never drew. To him yevntdy, as applied to the Spirit, indicates origination, dependence, distinction. To Arius and Athanasius it signifies 'otherness'.
What consequences had this passage of arms in the subsequent course of events? It may well explain Athanasius's bitter reference to u'° 'In passing through the mind of Eusebius, Origen's conjectures have become dogmas,' Swete, op.cit.197.
11 For the Son, cf. de Prin.l.iv.4 : 'in hac igitur Sapientia, quae semper erat cum
Patre, descripta semper inerat ac formata conditio, et numquam erat quanda eorum quae futura erant, praefiguratio apud Sapientiam non erat.' He does not develop this
_idea in relation to the Spirit. But His mediation is suggested, in Foh.XI1I.25, where
"it is said that the Father exceeds the Son and Spirit in glory as much as they exceed the rest. The truth is that there is no place for the Spirit in Origen's theology. He is compelled by the tradition to include Him, but he cannot relate Him to the whole with the confidence he shows in dealing with the Word. He finds in Him the same twofold character as in the Son: one with God (de Prin.L.iii.2), essentially holy
(in 2 Num.X1. 8), ofa nature which is eternal and v uncreate create (de Prin.IV.iv.8); and yet apparently originated as the creatures (#bid.I. praef.4), stri
4), strictly subordinated to the Father and Son (ibid. fr.9, in Foh.I1.10; but mgeoPudtegoc in the latter passage, as Harnack notes, is logical and not sonipiesll, and limited in the sphere of His operation (de Prin.L.iii.5—7). But whereas this two-sidedness in the case of the Logos serves a definite purpose in the doctrine, the Spirit hovers vaguely and confusedly between the creatures and the Son. See Harnack's excellent summary, AL
D. UH. 357-9.
12 See Robertson, Intro.xxvii, Harnack, H.D.IV.28.
Minas Se 13 veyntdv, from John 1s and as opposed to dyévyyntov. There is significance for Origen in the fact that the Spirit is not called xtiowa or zoijua in the Scriptures,
(de Prin.1.iii.3). Yet the Son is xtiopa, from Proverbs 822! Itisclear that the origination of the Spirit does not, in the eyes of Origen, make Him more of a creature than the Son. Yet it is true to say, with Harnack, doc.cit. : 'The idea of createdness was already more closely associated with the Holy Spirit than with the Logos.' Firstly, in that His yéveotc is through the Son; and secondly, in that He does not stand in any. creative, or indeed truly mediatorial, relation to the creatures.
INTRODUCTION
'the Eusebii' in IV.6. He probably knew the Ecc. Theol.4; and personal considerations, disposed him to see Eusebius as an angel of darkness rather than as a muddle-headed old man. Hereafter, we shall discover reasons for thinking that the theology of Marcellus influenced him,
- albeit negatively. Conservative opinion in the East must have been scandalized and alarmed by Marcellus's views upon the Spirit scarcely less than by his doctrine of the Son. But probably the incident is significant as symptom rather than as cause. After all, there is no reason to think that the generality of the bishops were theologically less obtuse than Eusebius. Loofs, indeed, fails to make sufficient allowance for the complexities of the case when he speaks of the Macedonian doctrine as 'the old: tradition unaffected by Nicaea'.* By 'tradition' he can only mean the doctrine of Origen; and this, as we have seen already, was really a tension of opposites only capable of reconciliation within its own theological framework. There are signs that Theognostus and Pierius modified it in the direction afterwards taken by the Macedonians.'* But it is no less probable, as far as the © scanty evidence goes, that (as with the doctrine of the Son) other impulses were drawing it in an opposite direction. At any rate, the insistence on the eternity and uncreatedness of the Spirit in the Confession of Gregory Thaumaturgus and in the Origenistic tract de Recta
Fide™ is of interest. Significant too in this connexion is the fact that Basil, self-confessed disciple of Gregory,!* writing in 360, at a time when he could hardly have been influenced by these letters, finds no difficulty in extending the duoodotor to the Spirit. But, none the less, as the hypostasis of the Spirit gained universal and conscious acceptance," and men were forced to think of Him as a Person in personal relation with the Father and the Son, there must have been many who found it easier to regard Him as a creature possessed of unique dignity and power, or as an intermediate being, neither God nor creature. And, no doubt, there were many more who preferred to shelve the whole business and say nothing at all. All three strands of opinion were probably represented i in 'Macedonianism'.
That movement itself is something of a mystery. In 358 'there 14 See on I.9(88).
15 'Macedonius,' H.R.E&.X1I.41-8.
16 At any rate, Photius singles out their teaching upon the Spirit for special condemnation, even though he allows that Pierius taught piously concerning the Father and the Son.
See Harnack, H.D.II1.95-7.
17 See Swete, op.cit.149.
18 See Ep.cciv and de Sp.S.74.
19 Ep.viii.10.
20 cf. Origen, in ¥o%.11.10. Hesitation on the point persisted in some quarters, otherwise orthodox, until 380.
See Gregory Nazianzen, Orat.xxxi.5.
THE LETTERS OF ST. ATHANASIUS
emerges, in opposition to the avowed Arianism of Ursacius and Valens at Sirmium, a group of Conservative bishops headed by Basil of Ancyra, which includes Macedonius of Constantinople and Eustathius of Sebaste. Successful at first in securing general support both from the Eastern bishops and from the Court, they obtain the exile of Homoean and Anomoean leaders. Both Athanasius and Hilary greet this new development with sympathy. But in the following year Basil shows himself incapable of offering any real opposition to the intrigues of the Homoeans. He and his friends compromise themselves at Sirmium and are outmanceuvred at Seleucia. In January 360, the triumphant Acacius and Eudoxius secured the deposition of all the leaders by a Council held at Constantinople. The theological characteristic of this group was the use of the term djotovatoc to describe the relation of the Father and the Son.*4 Epiphanius credits them with an open and avowed denial of the Godhead of the Spirit,?* but the documents he cites nowhere bear this out.
Twenty years later, at the Council of Constantinople, we find a party of thirty-six recalcitrant bishops who refused 'to reaffirm the Creed of Nicaea and the Godhead of the Spirit.2* Their leader was
Eleusius, who had been appointed bishop of Cyzicus by Macedonius and shared in 360 the latter's fate. The Council anathematized them as 'Semiarians or Pneumatomachi'.** Damasus of Rome, in an almost contemporary pronouncement, refers to them as 'Macedonians'.
Under that name they continued to exist as a separate sect, at least up to the middle of the next century, in Constantinople and Pontus.
| What connexion is there between this Macedonian sect and the group of Conservatives assembled round Basil in 358-60? There must be a connexion. Epiphanius** calls Basil and the rest 'Semiarians', and, as we have seen, it was under this name that the thirty-six were conuI*! Socrates, H.E.II.45, says that they did not distinctly assert the duotovovov until after 360, but the term is discussed by Athanasius (de Sy7.41) and by Hilary
(de Syn.72, etc.).
28 Haer Ixxiii.1.
28 Socrates (H.Z.V.8) suggests that the dwoovovoy rather than the Godhead of the Spirit was the immediate cause of their leaving the Council.
24 Swete (op.cit.185) is mistaken in supposing that this refers to the Homoeans.
They had already been anathematized as 'Arians or Eudoxians'. This threefold division of heresy was maintained by later writers. Loofs collects the evidence in his article, 'Macedonians', init., E.R.E.VIII.
25 Synodical Letter to Paulinus. A Greek translation is to be found in Theodoret,
H.E.V.11. It is variously dated 380-4.
A 26 Haer.|xxiii.
INTRODUCTION
demned at Constantinople. Again, it is clear that these Macedonians confessed the duodvowv in preference to the dyoodatov.
Socrates and Sozomen also link the two movements together through Macedonius. They assert that, following his deposition, he organized the supporters of the displaced bishops into a party whose doctrinal differentiae were: the Lucianic Creed, the duovodowor, and a refusal to acknowledge the Godhead of the Spirit.** According to these writers, previous to his deposition Macedonius had been associated with Acacius and Eudoxius. These statements are open to grave objections. All the evidence suggests that from 358 Macedonius had been a supporter of Basil of Ancyra.*" Although Sozomen says that the term
'Macedonian' came into general use during the reign of Julian, we find no record of it before 380, and then chiefly in Constantinopolitan writers or in writers who are likely to depend for their information upon Constantinopolitan sources.*! Basil and Gregory Nazianzen, who both wrote against the Pneumatomachi, never use it; and neither does Epiphanius. The evidence of Didymusis of particular significance.
In his earlier work, de Spiritu Sancto, which falls between 370 and 380, he never uses the term. But in the de Trinitate, dated circa 392, he expressly writes against the Macedonians, and makes many refer127 See Didymus, de Trin.I.4374, and ps.Athanasius, dial. de Trin.111.1,16.
Loofs in his earlier work, in H.R.£.XII (see also his Eustathius von Sebaste), doubts how far the Macedonians were committed to the duotovovov. But he modified his views later. See Article, £.R.Z.VIII.
28 Socrates (H.£.II.45) is very clear that the position they took up with regard to the Spirit was negative. Macedonius "declined to include the Holy Spirit in the Godhead of the Triad'. And to Eustathius he attributes the words: 'I would rather not give the Holy Spirit the name of God, and I would not dare to call Hima creature.' Sozomen (H.£.IV.27) adds certain details which may well have been drawn from later Macedonian writings, and says that Macedonius 'affirmed that the Holy Spirit is inferior in dignity, and designated Him a minister and a servant, and applied to Him whatever could be said without error of the holy angels'. See also the vague statement in Theodoret (H.£.I1.6). It is possible that all these accounts go back, through Socrates, to Rufinus, who says simply (H.£.1.25) that Macedonius was appointed by the Arians: 'guia similem Patri Filium fatebatur, licet Spiritum
Sanctum aeque ut illi blasphemaret. Rufinus in his turn may be indebted to Jerome, who, when translating and supplementing the H.£. of Eusebius at Constantinople in 380, makes reference to Macedonius 'a guo nunc haeresis Macedoniana'.
29 cf. Epiphanius, Haer.Ixxiii.23 and 27 ; Socrates, H.£.11.40 ; Sozomen, H.E.IV.
13 and 22 ; Philostorgius, Epitome, IV.9 and VIII.17.
30 Sozomen, H.£.V.14.
31 The evidence is collected by Loofs (Article, H.R.E.XII.41). See also A.M, Merenda, Migne, Pat.L.13, 108-9.
THE LETTERS OF ST. ATHANASIUS
ences to them and to their opinions. It is indeed these references which constitute the only cogent evidence in support of the statements of Socrates and Sozomen. But it is by no means certain that Didymus had any authoritative information about the genesis of Macedonianism. He certainly had before him a Macedonian dialogue, perhaps the same as that known to the author of ps. Athanasius, c. Macedonianum,
I.#2 But there is little to show that he was able to supplement it from any other source than hearsay. He does indeed know that Macedonius owed his appointment at Constantinople to Arian influence.™
But in II.620c he certainly gives a wrong impression of the relation of these Pneumatomachi to Arius, and in 632a he seems to think that Marathonius was advanced by the Arians as Macedonius' successor.*
While he has heard that the Macedonians confess the duotodator, not the duoovotor, of the Son, he elsewhere * repeats the error found commonly in Western Fathers® that their heterodoxy was limited to the Spirit.
Further evidence is forthcoming from Socrates himself who makes frequent references to a Macedonian writer, Sabinus of Heraclea, but tells us that his writings contain no mention of Macedonius himself.*
Almost equal importance in the movement is attached by both Socrates and Sozomen to the Homoiousian bishop of Nicomedia,
Marathonius, who is credited by the former historian with having introduced the duovodovoy, and by the latter with having given such help, both spiritual and financial, as saved the new body from premature extinction." From him the name 'Marathonians' was also in use. Taken together, these facts suggest that Macedonius, who apparently died soon after his deposition, had very little to do with 'Macedonianism'. Loofs is probably right in conjecturing that the name originally attached itself to those Christians in Constantinople
11182 See de Trin.II.604D and c.Mac.1.1, etc. Loofs thinks the dialogue used by Didymus was longer than the other.
88 613c. Loofs is certainly right in assuming that the reference here is to Macedonius himself.
#4 His information about Macedonius is, in fact, such as might well have been obtained from the apologetic works of Athanasius himself.
85 de Trin.1.437A.
36 7bid.34 1a.
87 e.g. Augustine, Haer.lii. cf. also Serm.Ar., fr.6 and 9, Migne, Pat.Lat.13.610¢ and 613B.
38 Socrates, H.E.11.15 fin.
89 7bid.11.45; Sozomen, H.E.IV.27. See also Didymus, de Trin.11.633a.
#9 Sozomen, H.£,IV.26.
INTRODUCTION
who refused to recognize the intrusion of Eudoxius; just as there were Meletians at Antioch and Athanasians at Alexandria. Later the scope of the term was extended to cover those representatives of the old Conservative tradition who survived the drift to Nicene orthodoxy.
This would be all the easier inasmuch as these die-hards were chiefly concentrated in Pontus and Thrace.
To the student of these letters all this is of importance because it discredits the statement that Macedonius called in question the Godhead of the Spirit. Apart from the writings of Athanasius, there is no evidence of anything analogous to Tropicism before 368, when we may perhaps discover the first reference to the Pneumatomachi in Basil.* Such evidence as we have points in the opposite direction.
During the reign of Julian, the deposed Homoiousian bishops began an agitation in the hope of recovering the churches they had lost.
Upon the accession of Jovian they petitioned the new emperor, who, however, dismissed them with the comment that he did not like contention.' This hint was reinforced, after Valens had succeeded, by his co-emperor in the West, Valentinian. Accordingly, in 365 a number of them, under the leadership of Eustathius of Sebaste, opened negotiations "4 with Liberius of Rome and were by him received into communion upon confession of the Nicene faith. But the question of their orthodoxy upon the Spirit was not raised.
It is, of course, possible to attribute this to bad faith upon their part. But not only is the charge beyond proof; it is difficult to believe that Liberius would have been ignorant of the fact, had they really made a stand against the decisions taken at Alexandria in 362. tr4! See Basil, Zp.xxv.2. The nature of the reference certainly suggests that Basil's correspondent has been charging him with Homoiousian views on both Son and Spirit, and that Basil is endeavouring to clear himself by referring to his writings against the Anomoeans. The term 'Pneumatomachi' is not to be found in his works before Zp.cxl, dated 373.
42 Socrates, H.£.I11.25.
43 They had appealed to him against the renewed hostility of the now predominant Homoeans. See Socrates, H.E.IV.7.
44 The documents are to be found in Socrates, H.E.1V.12.
45 As Swete suggests, H.8.4.C.177.
46 This is not the place to consider the subsequent history of the movement. It is clear that the acceptance of the Nicene Creed was not unanimously endorsed by the Semiarians. There was a Homoiousian Party Continuing. We miss the name of ' Eleusius among the bishops to whom Liberius wrote. Its absence is all the more significant inasmuch as Socrates (H.£.IV.4 and 6) implies that at this time he was an acknowledged leader. Sozomen (H.£.VI.12) tells us that, while a synod met at Tyana to affirm the Nicene faith, a second met in Caria to ratify the duaocovovov
THE LETTERS OF ST. ATHANASIUS
But what of the evidence of these letters and of the Alexandrian 'tome' itself? These documents presuppose a body of opinion which, while substantially orthodox as to the Son, denies the Godhead of the Spirit. If the Semiarians did not put forward views of their own upon that subject for several years after these letters were written, how are we to account for Athanasius's opponents here? Not only is their doctrinal position generally similar to that of the Macedonians; it is supported by an appeal to the same Scriptures and by the use of the same arguments. If what has been said above be correct, we may dismiss the 11146 (continued ) once more. It has been suggested that this reference is a doublet of that we find later in the same author, VII.2 (cf. Socrates, H.E.V.4), to a similar gathering ten years iater at Carian Antioch. But Loofs, in his later work, admits that there is no real difficulty in believing that such a synod did meet in 367. The alliance between the Nicenes and those Homoiousians who followed Eustathius, Tarsus, and Sylvanus was not of long duration. The rupture between Basil and Eustathius no doubt had a good deal to do with disturbing it. We are not told what objections Theodotus and Meletius (Basil, Zp.xcv and xcix) brought against the orthodoxy of Eustathius. But we are justified in concluding from the confession he was made to sign that they included a charge of heresy on the Spirit. There seems by this time to have been a hardening of opinion among the Nicenes. Even the cautious Basil was being forced out of his reserve. (It is unfair to say with Loofs that he did not finally make up his mind until 372. If he made up his mind only then, he must have unmade it after writing Ep.viii in 360. We must not take Basil's reserve for anything except what it was. He depended upon Semiarian support against the Homoeans.) Basil indeed accuses Eustathius of negotiating with Euzoius (Zf.ccxxvi.3) and with various compromising activities (bid. and cxxx). But the only really definite charge he can bring against him before 375 is that he showed an Arian creed to Gelasius (probably in 373). The contents of this creed have not been preserved to us, and we do not know how far Eustathius committed himself to it. In 375 or the following year, he did, according to Basil in £p.ccxliv.9, sign a creed at Cyzicus which substituted the 6motovotoy for the duoovotov. A little later, when denouncing him to the Westerns,
Basil refers to him (E#.cclxiii.3) as "consorting with those who are anathematizing the duoovotor, and prime mover (gootdt7n¢) of the heresy of the Pneumatomachi'.
The difference in the wording is worth notice. He is associated with the Homoiousians; he leads the Pneumatomachi. This helps us to understand how it is that Epiphanius, writing 374-8, distinguishes the Semiarians from the Pneumatomachi as separate parties differing as to their doctrine of the Son. For a little while during that period the Eustathians—i.e. such of the Semiarians who were reconciled to the 6uoovotov in 365 as were prepared to follow Eustathius out into the wilderness again—were indeed an isolated group, parting company from the Nicenes only as to their doctrine of the Spirit. But, feeling the weakness of their position, they returned to their former allies, Eleusius and the other iztransigeants of 365. At least, most of them did.
As late as 381 it is still possible for Gregory Nazianzen to address Macedonians in Constantinople as orthodox upon the Son (Orat.xli.8).
INTRODUCTION
suggestion®' that Serapion had intercepted a communication from Macedonius to some of his friends. Not only does it depend upon the statements of Socrates and Sozomen to which we have discovered grave objections. It does not harmonize with the indications offered by the letters themselves. To begin with, it means that Ep. I was not written before 361; a possible, but unlikely, date. If it be accepted, these letters will come after the de Synodis. The difference between the tone of Athanasius's references to the Semiarians in that work and the way in which he speaks of the Tropici presents a very real difficulty.
Even granting the change of context, it is not easy to believe that the 'beloved' of de Syn. 43 and the dydyto xai advta toAunooi of 1.18 are the same people. The epithet "Tropici' is itself worthy of consideration in this connexion. From the abrupt way in which Athanasius introduces it,® it seems that he did not invent it, but that it was already in circulation when Serapion wrote to him. Were these letters directed against the Semiarians, we might reasonably expect to find traces of it in the later stages of the controversy. But there is nothing to show that Basil or Didymus or any of the later Catholic writers ever knew their antagonists under this name. Again, what of the habitat of the new heresy? Athanasius never explicitly says that it belongs to Egypt. But he does write as though, through Serapion, he were addressing a body of teachers and pastors toward whom he had special responsibilities, and who naturally looked to him for guidance and instruction, in short, the clergy of his diocese.*® Serapion is not only the channel through which information as to the new heresy reaches Athanasius. He is to be the mouthpiece, and even the editor and interpreter, of the latter's reply. This would be natural enough if Athanasius were dealing with a matter domestic to his own diocese, but not so natural if he were trying to intervene in the affairs of Asia or Pontus. Nor do we get the impression that these letters were written in answer to a more or less private document, but to an opinion that had already obtained public expression and which required to be met with propaganda.
Moreover, when we come to compare the doctrine of the Tropici ur'? See Loofs, £.R.E.VIII.228-9. K. Holl ('Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Kirchengeschichte, 11.303) offers reasons for believing that the relation between Macedonius and Macedonianism was closer than Loofs suggests in his H.R.£. article.
48 See on 1.10(85).
49 cf. especially II.1, init.(150). The yvijovovof 1.1 suggests that Serapion in writing to Athanasius was acting on behalf of a group of his supporters and friends. Once again, Egypt is the natural place to look for such a group.
THE LETTERS OF ST. ATHANASIUS
with that of later Pneumatomachi, we find, side by side with important similarities, certain subtle but significant differences. The teaching of the Macedonians as to the Spirit was hesitant, confused, and contra~dictory. The Spirit is not to be called lord nor to be glorified with the Father. He is not God's ovveoydc,® for He does not create or bestow life.'* Like the angels, He is a minister and instrument of God. Yet He is not to be regarded as an angel nor as a creature of any kind. He is not unlike the Father and the Son.® He is Oetov but not Gedo, yevntéy but not xtiotdy,§' povadindy, of a péon voc. The Tropicist doctrine, by comparison, appears clear cut and consistent. The Spirit is a creature differing from the angels only in degree.® He is, in fact, an angel and a creature,® and unlike the Son.* It is of course possible that Athanasius and Serapion have sharpened the edges and intensified the colour of Tropicism.
But even more significant than the description of the new heresy in these letters is the tone Athanasius takes in dealing with it. The insistence in I.17 that he will be satisfied with the acknowledgement that the Spirit is not a creature; his assertion, in IV.1, that all he asked for from his opponents was silence; the persistent refutation of the one thesis, that the Spirit is a creature; the negative line taken in the argument of I.16—all this would be largely ineffective and inapposite against the Macedonians, who asked for nothing better than to fall back on comfortable question-begging formulz.
We find the Macedonians defending their doctrine by the argument 111° See ps.Athanasius, c.Mac.1.1-3,17 ; Gregory of Nyssa, adv.Mac.2 ; Basil, de Sp.S.24, etc.
51 os.Athanasius, c.Mac.1.17.
52 4s.Athanasius, dial. III de Trin.16, c.Mac.1.12; Gregory of Nyssa, adv.Mac.
11 ; Didymus, de Trin.11.5643, etc.
53 cf. dnoétns, c.Mac.1.17, and see Gregory of Nyssa, [email protected], Didymus, de Trin.I1.600c. But here too, according to Basil (de Sp.8.51), there was some equivocation, the Spirit being said to occupy an intermediate position oddé éy deonotixh 7 Oovding ta &et.
54 4s.Athanasius, dial. II de Trin.19 ; Didymus, de Trin.11.620a. For a contrary judgement, see Gregory of Nyssa, [email protected].
55 ¢.Mac.1.18.
°8 ibid .15, dial.III de Trin.\9.
57 c.Mac.1.20 (from John 1s).
58 For povadixdy, see dial. III de Trin.19, c.Mac.1.8; for the uéon ptotc, Didymus, de Trin.11.548a, 576B. Yet there are numerous passages where Didymus speaks as though the Macedonians took Him for a creature, e.g. 564c, 604D.
59 Fy.1.1.
60 jbid.10, etc.
$1 7bid.9. But the reference may be merely a generalization on the part of Athanasius.
INTRODUCTION
to which the Tropici also gave prominence, that no relationship is conceivable within the Godhead other than that of Father and Son, and that the existence of a second originated Person is precluded by the fact that the Son is only-begotten.** The credit for introducing this argument, however, must go to Eunomius who uses it in his Apology; and, indeed, ultimately to Origen. The Macedonians also laid emphasis, in the baptismal formula, etc., upon the order in which the divine
Persons are enumerated, holding such enumeration to be a subordination of the Spirit to the Father and the Son, rather than a coordination of the Three. Some of them insisted, in the doxology, upon the form év ITve}uatt ayiw, making the Spirit the instrument of the praise offered to God. Neither of these points is noticed by Athanasius.® But both Tropici and Macedonians claimed to establish their case from the Scriptures. Whereas, however, Athanasius only alludes to three texts as cited by the former, the exegesis of the latter was very comprehensive and elaborate. They pressed into service a series of passages which suggested His inferiority to the Father and Son, or which, by their silence, seemed to imply that He has no place in the divine life and activity. This battery of texts was, no doubt, built up in the course of the controversy. But in view of the large number of lections they employ, the fact that we find them using the three that are quoted as from the Tropici is not so surprising as Loofs thought it.
Their chief appeal is always to the silence of Scripture® as to the Godhead of the Spirit; and Athanasius never suggests that the Tropici had recourse to this or found it a difficulty. The lack of any explicit
Scriptural authority for calling the Spirit @ed¢ naturally counted for everything with these conservatives. But it would count for a good deal less with quondam disciples of Eunomius who were concerned, not that the Spirit should not be called God, but that He should be acknowledged as a creature.® 1118 For references, see note on I.15(96).
83 cf. Gregory Nazianzen, Orat.xxxi.17-20 ; Basil, de Sp.S. 41, etc. ; Gregory of Nyssa, adv.Mac.6 ; Didymus, de Trin.II.548p ; ps.Athanasius, c.Mac.1.6-7.
64 cf. Basil, 2bid.58-64 ; Gregory Nazianzen, 7bid.20.
65 For samples of other arguments adduced by the Macedonians, see c.Mac.1.11.
66 For examples of the passages used by the Pneumatomachi in their doctrine of the Spirit, see Didymus, de Trin.I11.949-84.
8? cf. Didymus, de Trin.I1.632p, etc.; Gregory Nazianzen, Orat.xxxi.25-8 ; ps-Athanasius, c.Mac.1.15, dial.III de Trin., passim.
68 See note on 1.31(142f.).
THE LETTERS
OF ST. ATHANASIUS
But let us examine the three passages to which the Tropici appealed.
As to Amos 413, it is quite uncertain how far the Macedonians made use of it. It is, indeed, discussed by Gregory of Nyssa in his de Fide, but this work is not expressly directed against them. The most positive evidence we have is that of Didymus. But from the way in which he introduces his discussion of the passages which relate to the Spirit, de Trinitate, 111.949p, it is clear that he makes no effort here to distinguish the argument of the Macedonians from that of the Eunomians.. There remains his treatment of the text in de Spiritu Sancto,
14-15. But against whom is it directed? Primarily, the de Spiritu Sancto is an exposition of Didymus's own doctrine and not a refutation of another's. References to heretical opinions are few and incidental, and do not suggest that the writer had any written evidence in front of him. The distinctive Macedonian arguments are not touched. It is at least a plausible theory that these scanty references reflect the character of local, Egyptian, Pneumatomachism, Tropicist rather than
Macedonian. On the other hand, we have the silence of Basil in his de Spiritu Sancto and of Gregory of Nyssa in the section of his adv.
Macedontanos which has come down to us, of Gregory of Nazianzus in his Oration on the Spirit and of the writer of ps. Athanasius, c. Mac.
I. The manner in which the passage is cited in dial. III de Trinitate only confirms this.
For their use of 1 Timothy 521 we have the evidence of Didymus, de Trin. 11.548c, and Basil, de Sp. S., 29-30. Didymus expressly attributes it to the Macedofiians, but the value of his attestation is diminished by the fact that at this point he is markedly dependent on Athanasius." The significance given to the passage by Basil's oppon-. ents is not the same as that discovered in it by the Tropici. The latter held that the absence of any reference to the Spirit means that He is included with the angels. 'The former used it to weaken the force of such passages as Matthew 2819, by showing that angels, as well as the Spirit, are enumerated with the Godhead. But, either way, no great importance can be attached to its appearance in Macedonian propaganda. We know that they made much of passages such as John 173; and 1 Timothy 521 was obvious ammunition for the same target.
Didymus likewise attributes to the Macedonians the use of Zechariah 19. Here again, he is indebted to Athanasius for the answer he m1® See on I.3. Even if accepted, the identification of zvedua in Amos 413 with the Holy Spirit would prove too much for the Macedonians.
70 See notes on I.10-12(86ff.).
INTRODUCTION
makes to them. But the context in de Trin. I1.628x, is not that in which it is introduced in Ep. 1.11. The Macedonians seem to have laid the emphasis on the fact that the angel delivered a divine message, seeking to invalidate the argument which deduced the Godhead of the Spirit from His function in the inspiration of prophecy. The point of the citation in Ep. I is not altogether clear, but it seems that the Tropici rather stressed the words év éuot, to prove that the angels, no less truly than the Spirit, may be said to dwell in believers. Athanasius's answer, at any rate, seems to imply this.
Finally, it is contended by Loofs that 'the mockery poured by Athanasius upon the tropes recognized by his adversaries recalls the Macedonian practice of resorting to duwreplatc, ovrvwropias, etc." But, as Loofs states it, this reference is liable to mislead. What the Macedonians actually said, according to Didymus, de Trin. II.
476a, was this: 'Attention ought not to be paid to homonyms and synonyms and equivocal expressions.' Thus they would argue that no significance attaches to the term 'good' as applied to the Spirit in Scripture. It is indeed said, in Mark 1018, to belong to God alone, but it is none the less equivocal because we also find it applied to men and things." In other words, when confronted with any term or expression which suggested the unity or coequality of the Spirit with the Father and Son, they searched the Scriptures until they found the same words used of creatures, albeit in a different context, dubbed them homonymous or equivocal, and dismissed them. There was nothing original about this. They were simply reviving the technique of Arius and Eusebius at Nicaea," where they were prepared to confess the Son to be the Power and Image and Glory of God inasmuch as they could
- find Scriptural authority for applying these terms to men and even to locusts! It may have been quibbling of this kind which led Epiphanius to criticize the Arians as favouring 'tropical' exegesis."* They played off one meaning of a word against another. It is very hard to see why this innuendo should have attached itself peculiarly to Athanasius's opponents in these letters. Certainly, in the exegesis of Amos 413, it is not the Tropici but their adversaries who raise the question of the equivocal meaning of svevua. Indeed, Didymus expressly uses the term 'homonymous' to characterize it, de Sp. 8. 58. It would seem, therefore, that the charge of "Tropicism' or "Trope-mongering' was
71 cf. also 2bid.516c and 605a.
72 See de Dec.19-20, 78 Haer.lxix.50. See on 1.10(85).
74 So also Cyril of Alexandria, de Trin.V1I.1108a.
/ $2
THE LETTERS OF ST. ATHANASIUS
wider and more indefinite than that of 'resorting to homonyms and synonyms', which Loofs brings against the Macedonians. As a matter of fact, all parties in the great controversy played with 'tropical' interpretations of Scripture when the literal interpretation was unfavourable to their own opinions, and none more so than the orthodox in their exegesis of Proverbs 822.
We are now in a position to state the conclusions to which these considerations seem to point. The Macedonians were essentially conservatives. They did not understand the character of the theological crisis which had overtaken them, and they thought it could be resolved by repeating the watchwords and formulz of a previous age. They sought to preserve a fragment of Origenism in a theological vacuum.
In 358 their precursors reacted against the brutal clarity of Anomoeanism and produced the inconclusive dpoiodctoy. Fifteen or twenty years later, when the younger Nicenes were growing more precise and dogmatic in their definition of the Spirit's nature and Godhead, they themselves took refuge in the untenable and contradictory opinions that bear their name. The reaction of 358 carried them towards Athanasius. That of 373-80 carried them away from Athanasius' spiritual successor, Basil. But both were really inspired by a dislike of clarity and sharpness of definition. They never faced the question, and consequently resented any answer that really was an answer.
The doctrine of the Tropici developed in the same general direction, but it sprang from different roots. In the opinion of the present writer, 'T'ropicism was, above all, a local Egyptian movement. Egypt was not Asia or Pontus. 'The prestige of Athanasius and the authority which had been concentrated in his hands had destroyed the materials for a conservative reaction. The Tropici had rallied to the Arians after the expulsion of Athanasius and came under the influence of Aetius and Eunomius during their sojourn in Alexandria in 356.
From them they learned a form of Arianism more thorough and comprehensive than that previously current in Egypt, which taught that the Spirit was the creature of the Son. Later, perhaps in the autumn of 358, when the stupidity and brutality of George had clearly ruined whatever chances Arianism had of rehabilitating itself in Egypt, they returned to the Church. But while they were prepared to confess the duoodatoy of the Son, they would not give up the doctrine of the Spirit which they had learned from the Anomoeans. No council, whether general or provincial, had pronounced upon it. The subject
-INTRODUCTION
itself was one which their own 'pope' had never treated except in the most general and incidental way. So, while claiming to be in communion with the orthodox, they circulated this Anomoean doctrine and gave publicity to the arguments of Aetius.
Such a situation would, at any rate, adequately account for these letters. It explains why Athanasius links Tropicism not with Homoiousianism but with Arianism pure and undefiled; and why he combines the abridgement of his arguments against the Tropici, in Ep. IIT, with an exposition of the Godhead of the Son, in Zp. II, not materially different from that in the de Synodis, which was specifically written to conciliate the Homoiousians. It helps us to understand why he so persistently labours to show that, by their doctrine of the Spirit, the Tropici compromise their orthodoxy upon the Son. Not merely strategically, but tactically, this was the weak point in their position.
It brought them into collision with an undisputed canon of orthodoxy.
In such circumstances and from such opponents Athanasius might well be content with a bare denial that the Spirit is a creature or even with silent acquiescence. It is very doubtful whether Athanasius would, at this juncture, have taken up the cudgels against so cautious and limited an expression of opinion as that attributed by Socrates to Macedonius and Eustathius. But, had he done so, he would have been obliged to ask for a much more definite assurance of the Spirit's Godhead.
Moreover, the hypothesis does justice to the close affinity the doctrine of the Tropici has, on the one hand, with that of Eunomius, and, on the other, with that of the Pneumatomachi in Didymus's de Spiritu
Sancto. Eunomius taught that the Spirit is a creature existing by the will of the Father and the activity of the Son, subordinated to the Father and the Son in a third degree of being, and excluded from the creative power of the Son."5 He argues that the only alternative to calling Him a creature is to call Him a son." The only texts the Eunomians are known to have cited upon this subject are John 13 and Amos 413." In the de Spiritu Sancto Didymus deals with heretics who, apparently without qualification, call the Spirit a creature" and an angel'®; who deny that He is creator®; who argue that the Catholic doctrine must make Him a son® ; and whose exposition of Scripture ut'' Liber Apologeticus, 25.
78 ibid.
7 Basil, adv.Eun.II1.7.
78 de Sp.S.6 init. etc.
79 ibid.7 and 13.
80 7bid.32.
81 {bid.62. The objection, discussed in 60-1, that Satan also is said to indwell
Judas, etc., seems to have presented itself to Didymus's mind rather than to have been raised by his opponents. It follows upon his own characteristic doctrine
S.A —3