3. The historical limits and chronology of the period
3. The historical limits and chronology of the period
There is fairly general agreement today amongst scholars that the Conquest of Canaan took place in the latter part of the thirteenth century BC. This consensus of opinion comes after decades of controversy between the protagonists for a fifteenth-century BC date for the Exodus and Conquest and those who supported a thirteenth-century date. There is no place here for a full discussion, but amongst the evidence that has led to greater support for the later date we may note:
1. The Tell el-Amarna correspondence of the fourteenth century BC between Egypt and her vassal city-states in Canaan points to a period before, not after, the main Israelite invasion.
2. The events associated with the Israelite bondage in Egypt fit easily into the period of the 19th Egyptian dynasty, i.e. from about 1310 BC.
3. The kingdoms of Edom, Moab and Ammon emerged during the early thirteenth century BC and the relationships noted between Israel and these would be impossible at an earlier date.
4. There is strong archaeological evidence for the destruction of a large number of Canaanite cities in the latter part of the thirteenth century BC. Amongst cities which have been sufficiently excavated to reveal a pattern of destruction, usually by fire, are Hazor, Eglon, Bethel, Lachish and Debir. It must not be assumed that every city was destroyed by the Israelites, but a general pattern of invasion and destruction is observable which links closely with the biblical record. Egyptian power was at a low ebb in this period, apart from one incursion into Canaan by Merenptah in c. 1220 BC, and this prevented aid coming to her vassal city-states and allowed Israel to become established in the land.
It is significant that in most recent accounts of Israel’s history the late date for the Exodus and Conquest is assumed, no mention being made of a possible fifteenth-century alternative.7 An approximate date for the Conquest may therefore be accepted as c. 1230 BC.
At the other end of the judges’ period there is the reign of Saul. The length of this is a matter of considerable dispute but a date of c. 1020 BC for the coronation of Saul is perhaps best supported. Deducting thirty years for the latter years of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Josh. 24:31), a not unreasonable estimate in view of the age at which Joshua died (Josh. 24:29; see note on Judg. 2:6–10), approximately 180 years can be allowed for the judges’ period, i.e. from c. 1200 to 1020 BC. We are immediately confronted with a problem of chronology when we consider the figures which are found in the book of Judges, as may be seen from the following table:
The oppression of Cushan-rishathaim
8
years
The period of rest following Othniel’s deliverance
40
The Moabite oppression
18
The period of rest following Ehud’s deliverance
80
The oppression of Jabin
20
The period of rest following Deborah’s deliverance
40
The oppression of Midian
7
The period of rest following Gideon’s deliverance
40
The reign of Abimelech
3
The judgeship of Tola
23
The judgeship of Jair
22
The oppression of Ammon
18
The judgeship of Jephthah
6
The judgeship of Ibzan
7
The judgeship of Elon
10
The judgeship of Abdon
8
The oppression of Philistia
40
390
years
To this figure there must be added an estimated 20 years for Samuel’s judgeship, giving a total of 410 years. Admittedly there are problems. The oppressions of Ammon and Philistia may have been contemporaneous (10:7, 9; cf. 13:1) and it will be observed that we have included the 20 years of Samson’s judgeship (16:31) within the period of the Philistine oppression, which we suggest was broken by Samuel at Ebenezer (1 Sam. 7:5–13). No allowance whatever has been made for Shamgar (3:31), and the 40 years of Eli’s judgeship (1 Sam. 4:18) has also been excluded. But, in spite of these adjustments, the figure remains impossibly high. It is frequently observed by scholars that the editor is influenced in his chronology by the 480 years noted in 1 Kings 6:1. We do not accept this view, since to the figure of 410 years there must be added (to conform to the requirements of 1 Kgs 6:1) the 40 years of the wilderness period, approximately 20 years for Saul’s reign (some scholars would put this as high as 40 years; cf. Acts 13:21), a further 40 years for the reign of David (2 Sam. 5:4) as well as the 4 years of Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 6:1), a total of 514 years. This, the lowest possible figure, can hardly be reconciled with 480 years.8
Various attempts have been made to reduce the overall total, e.g. by including the years of foreign domination within the periods of the individual judges, or by omitting the years of the minor judges and the usurper Abimelech, but such solutions are highly conjectural. Nor need we resort to such speculation in an attempt to remove the difficulty, for a simpler solution is obvious: it is that in Judges there is a relative rather than an absolute chronology. Flinders Petrie is probably too precise in his view that there were three groups of judges in the north, east and west of the land respectively, with the chronologies relating to the relevant parts of the country.9 We may simply note that the period of any two judges may have overlapped, a view supported by a consideration of the area of the country affected in each foreign oppression:
1. Cushan-rishathaim. No specific detail is given apart from the mention of Othniel, whose tribe was connected with Judah.
2. Eglon. Limited encroachment from Moab which affected the territory of Benjamin and Ephraim.
3. Jabin and Sisera. A larger number of tribes than at any other time in the period co-operated under Deborah and Barak. Ephraim, Machir, Issachar, Naphtali, Benjamin and Zebulun shared in the deliverance, Reuben, Gilead, Dan and Asher were censured for their non-participation, only Judah and Simeon are not mentioned.
4. Midian. Manasseh, the tribe of Gideon, was the tribe chiefly involved, with Asher, Zebulun, Naphtali and, at a later stage of the operation, Ephraim.
5. Ammon. The oppression was limited to Gilead, east of Jordan, although Judah, Benjamin and Ephraim were affected in earlier raids (10:9).
6. Philistia. Samson’s activity was a one-man operation against the Philistine infiltration. No tribes are noted as cooperating with him, nor is he ever represented as the leader of an army. The tribes principally affected by the Philistine incursions were Dan, the tribe of Samson, which was forced to vacate its tribal portion and migrate northwards (18:1ff.), and Judah (15:9–11).
A careful examination of a map of Israel will show that, with the exception of the oppression of the Canaanites which was broken by Deborah and Barak, only a relatively minor portion of the country was affected during each emergency. The general accuracy of the figures in Judges may be accepted, therefore, but care must be taken in interpreting them. Possibly the frequency with which the figure 40 or its multiples occurs suggests that it is a round figure representing a generation. The following table gives an approximate chronology for the period of the judges:
1230
The entry into Canaan
1200
Othniel
1170
Ehud
1150
Shamgar
1125
Deborah and Barak
1100
Gideon
1080
Abimelech
1070
Jephthah
1070
Samson
1050
The battle of 1 Samuel 4
1020
The accession of Saul
One further difficulty must be mentioned, which illustrates the problem of ascertaining a precise chronology. Jephthah (11:26) refers to a period of 300 years between the Conquest and his own time. This appears to be related to the chronological data already given in the book of Judges up to this point. The total of the figures supplied is 319 years, and this may be reduced to 301 years if the 18 years of the Ammonite oppression be subtracted. Various attempts at a solution of this problem are given in the commentary on the text. This verse is important evidence for those who support a fifteenth-century date for the Conquest, but the balance of evidence remains in favour of a thirteenth-century date.