Chapter Six -- Polycarp of Smyrna: Life, Martyrdom, and Writing

{L183} In contrast to how little we actually know about the life of Ignatius of Antioch, there exists an abundance of material on the life of Polycarp of Smyrna. We have Ignatius's Letter to Polycarp and the later Martyrdom of Polycarp in addition to what can be inferred from Polycarp's own Letter to the Philippians. Irenaeus, the late second century bishop of Lyons, as a boy heard Polycarp preach in Smyrna. Writing years later (ca. A.D. 190) from ancient Gaul (France), Irenaeus left remembrances of Polycarp which fit into the whole picture of this famous martyr of Asia Minor.

{L184} In a letter preserved by Eusebius in his fourth century Ecclesiastical History, Irenaeus wrote to his childhood friend Florinus, who in his later years had turned to the Gnostic heresies that the bishop of Lyons fought against so vigorously. Irenaeus attempted to persuade his old friend Florinus to abandon his new views by appealing to the antiquity and orthodoxy of Polycarp, their common teacher. In the course of his appeal we learn about Polycarp's episcopal ministry at Smyrna:

{L185} When I was a boy, I saw you in lower Asia with Polycarp, acting splendidly in the royal hall, and endeavoring to be highly thought of by him. I recall the events of that time more clearly than those of recent years. For the things you learn in childhood grow in the soul, and are united with it; I am able to describe the very place in which the blessed Polycarp sat as he discoursed, his goings and his comings, the character of his life, his physical appearance, his speeches to the multitudes, and the accounts which he gave of his interactions with John and with the others who had seen the Lord. I also recall when he remembered their words, and what he heard from them concerning the Lord, concerning his miracles and teaching. What Polycarp received then from eyewitnesses of the Word of life, he related in its entirety in harmony with the Scriptures. By the mercy of God, I listened to these things attentively, noting them down, not on paper, but in my heart. By the grace of God I always recall them faithfully. And I am able to bear witness before God that if that blessed and apostolic presbyter had heard any such thing, he would have cried out, and stopped his ears, according to his custom. He would have exclaimed, "O good God, unto what times have you preserved me that I should have to endure these things? And he would have fled from the place where, sitting or standing, he had heard such words. And this can be shown plainly from the letters that he sent, either to the neighboring churches strengthening them, or to some of the brethren admonishing and exhorting them. This can be plainly seen. [1]

{L186} 1 Eusebius Ecclesiastical History bk 5 ch. 20 sec. 5-8.

{L187} All the information we possess about Polycarp's life must be woven together into a coherent narrative to arrive at a reliable picture. [2] According to Irenaeus, Polycarp was not only a disciple of John and friends with others who had seen Jesus on earth, he was appointed by the apostles as the bishop of Smyrna. Tertullian specifies that the appointment was accomplished by none other than John the apostle himself. [3] Polycarp, of course, was the bishop of Smyrna when Ignatius passed through en route to Rome around the year A.D. 110. If we suppose that the apostle John died some time in the last decade of the first century and that Polycarp was in fact ordained and appointed by John, he most likely assumed the episcopal office no later than 95 and possibly as early as 85. Even assuming his young age at ordination, it is unlikely that he would have been consecrated a bishop if he were under twenty-five years of age. This would put his birth some time between the years 60-70, which means that he was between thirty and forty years old in 110 when Ignatius visited Smyrna. If Polycarp was indeed eighty-six years old when he was martyred, as the Martyrdom of Polycarp implies, [4] this would mean that the martyrdom took place A.D. 146 to 156.

{L188} 2 I will not rely here on the Life of Polycarp (Vita Polycarpi) written by a certain Pionius. The work is of questionable historical value since it probably dates from the fourth century. The text of this work can be found in Lightfoot The Apostolic Fathers. However, the Martyrdom of Polycarp translated here probably dates from the early third century.

{L189} 3 "For this is the manner in which the apostolic churches transmit their registers: as the church of Smyrna, which records that Polycarp was placed therein by John." Tertullian On Prescription Against Heretics bk 32.

{L190} 4 In the Martyrdom (ch. 9) Polycarp says only that he has served Christ eighty-six years. This may refer to his age or to the time since his baptism. If he was baptized as an infant, it would not make much difference.

{L191} The Martyrdom itself does not tell us the year of Polycarp's demise; it only specifies the day, 23 February. Many scholars have dated the martyrdom 23 February 155. However, if the information provided by Eusebius on Polycarp's visit to Anicetus in Rome is reliable, Polycarp must have been in Rome no earlier than 154/155. Anicetus died in either 165 or 166. Perhaps the best we can estimate is that Polycarp was martyred in Smyrna during the dates of Anicetus's papacy (154/155 to 165/166). [5] One thing is certain, all the information we possess about Polycarp lauds him as a stellar exemplar of Christian faith, life, and death. Greek-speaking Christians, no doubt aware of the meaning of his name -- Polycarpos means "much fruit" -- drew deep and lasting inspiration from the account of the manner of his death in the famous Martyrdom of Polycarp to which we now turn.

{L192} 5 "and when the blessed Polycarp was at Rome in the time of Anicetus, and they disagreed a little about certain other things, they immediately made peace with one another, not caring to quarrel over this matter [the date of Easter]. For neither could Anicetus persuade Polycarp not to observe what he had always observed with John the disciple of our Lord, and the other apostles with whom he had associated; nor could Polycarp persuade Anicetus to observe it as he said that he ought to follow the customs of the presbyters that had preceded him." Eusebius Ecclesiastical History bk 4 ch. 14.

The Teaching of the Martyrdom of Polycarp [6]

{L193} 6 The complete text of the Martyrdom is difficult to establish with certainty. The biggest problem has to do with the ending because there are two textual traditions. Chapter 21 of the Martyrdom consists of a kind of historical appendix situating Polycarp's death in the Greek calendar. Then chapter 22 has two different forms, both of which are translated here. The shorter version (see version 1) is thought to be an appendix added by the Church in Philomelium, and probably originates from before the 4th century. The second appendix (the so-called Moscow manuscript) is longer and was probably composed at the end of the fourth century.

{L194} More important than the date of Polycarp's death is the teaching about Christian martyrdom that the document contains. A careful reading reveals that the author wanted not only to recount the circumstances of Polycarp's death but also to instruct Christians on how one should prepare for death. Much like the canonical gospels themselves, the author of the Martyrdom uses historical narrative for pedagogical purposes.

{L195} The Martyrdom of Polycarp is written as a letter from the church of Smyrna to the church of Philomelium but is clearly meant for all Christendom. [7] The author wishes to portray Polycarp's death as a witness -- martus in Greek means witness -- to the gospel of Jesus Christ which counts earthly life as a prelude to eternal life. In the author's estimation, a Christian martyrdom benefits not only the martyr himself but all who wish to imitate Christ (1:2). Throughout the Martyrdom we find parallels between the death of Jesus and that of Polycarp. Chapter 8 says that Polycarp prayed in the manner of Jesus's prayer for his disciples (see Jn 17) and that he was led into the city of Smyrna on a donkey. The day was a "great Sabbath."

{L196} 7 "to all those sojourners of the holy and catholic church in every place" Mart Polyc Sal.

{L197} The didactic character of the Martyrdom becomes clear with the contrastive example of a certain Phrygian named Quintus who offered himself for martyrdom. His failure to follow through revealed that his actions were not in accord with the gospel (4:1). Polycarp's arrest and execution, by contrast, were forced upon him. We are told that a certain Germanicus was to be martyred first but the crowd called for Polycarp in his place. After Polycarp heard of his impending arrest, his faithful people urged him to flee to a country house where he could be hid from authorities (5:1). While praying there, Polycarp had a vision of being burned alive within three days.

{L198} What is striking about the Martyrdom of Polycarp is that the author does not portray the Roman officials as monsters or bloodthirsty tyrants. Given the Roman persecution of the Christians, the author might understandably have painted a picture of domination and tyranny, but his descriptions pursue another tack. The proconsul of Asia, Statius Quadratus, is shown as a man of some compassion, who attempts to persuade the accused that sacrificing to Caesar is a simple matter of conformity with the law. It is precisely the apparently tolerant attitude on the part of Roman officials which makes the Christian attitude of Polycarp stand out in bolder relief.

{L199} Polycarp says that swearing an oath of allegiance to Caesar and sacrificing to the emperor is tantamount to denying Christ as king of all. Strengthened by a voice from heaven (9:1), Polycarp asked the inevitable and decisive question, "I have served him eighty-six years and he has done me no wrong. How can I blaspheme my King who saved me?" With this gesture, needlessly defiant from the Roman point of view, Polycarp is prepared for execution. Brought to the fire for his incineration, the holy bishop reminds himself and others that there is an eternal fire waiting those who are ungodly (11:2). The uncontrollable rage that issues forth from the crowd of pagans and Jews is without a doubt due to this man being "the father of Christians." By destroying Polycarp, the crowd hoped to silence the Christians and to stop their progress within Smyrna. But Polycarp went willingly to his execution by fire. We are told that he did not need to be bound by nails because God gave him the stamina to remain in the fire. Before his demise, Polycarp offers a prayer in imitation of Jesus praying on the cross. We will look at the prayer in more detail presently. Since the flames could not extinguish his life, the executioner thrust a dagger into the side of the father of Christians, signaling yet another parallel with the death of Jesus (see Jn 19:34).

{L200} The author concludes his account by distinguishing between the worship of Christ himself as the dying Messiah and the veneration of martyrs (17,1,2) probably because the pagans could not distinguish between the two kinds of death. Martyrdom then is seen as the ultimate imitation of Christ and the highest means of partaking of his grace and life.

The Prayer of Polycarp

{L201} One particular section (chapter 14) of the Martyrdom has drawn special attention because it contains a prayer of Polycarp before his death, a section replete with liturgical overtones. This prayer, so full of biblical language, expresses the true spirit of martyrdom in ancient Christianity. [8] Here Polycarp blesses God for having:

{L202} thought me worthy of this day and this hour to be numbered among your martyrs in the cup of your Christ, for the resurrection of eternal life, of both soul and body, in the incorruptibility of the Holy Spirit. Among these may I be received today before you, in the sacrifice that is rich and acceptable.

{L203} 8 I hereby gratefully acknowledge my dependence on the excellent exposition of this prayer by Camelot. See P.Th. Camelot, Ignace d'Antioche. Polycarpe de Smyrne. Lettres. Martyre de Polycarpe, 4th ed. Sources chretiennes 10. (Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1969) pp. 202-207.

{L204} Like other early liturgical prayers that have come down to us, Polycarp's request "to be numbered among your martyrs" hearkens back to those early Saints who, upon their deaths, fully partook of eternal life and experienced the incorruptibility given through the fullness of the Holy Spirit's indwelling. The phrase "in the cup (chalice) of your Christ" points both to the liturgical practice of the church on earth and to the death of Jesus which is embodied in that eucharistic cup.

{L205} Like most of the liturgical prayers of Christian antiquity, Polycarp's prayer is trinitarian to the core but its focus lies in the address to the Father. He is "the Almighty" ( Pantokrator), the God of angels and (heavenly) powers and of all creation. God "the Almighty One" translates YHWH Sabaoth or YHWH Shaddai used in the Old Testament. It is the language used in the book of Revelation to describe the praises of those in the heavenly court. Particularly striking is Revelation 4:8 where the four living creatures cry out, "Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty, who was, and is, and is to come." [9] The cry in Revelation is clearly modeled on Isaiah 6:3, "Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Sabaoth. The whole earth is full of his glory." The author of the Apocalypse has altered the Hebrew text of Isaiah to focus not on the manifestation of God's glory but on the eternal nature of God who was and is and is to come. Polycarp's address to the Father as the Almighty may very well have derived from a liturgical use of the book of Revelation in his church at Smyrna. In any case, it reflects the early Christian idea that all prayer is ultimately directed to the same source of life and redemption that is at the same time the goal of the Christian pilgrimage, the Father Almighty. It is appropriately used by Polycarp as he readies himself for his final journey back to the Father whom he has served on earth.

{L206} 9 For other uses of Pantokrator (Almighty) in Revelation, see Rev 1:8; 11:17; 15:3; 16:7; 21:22.

{L207} Polycarp would not, however, be a Christian martyr without that "beloved and blessed child Jesus Christ" (Mart Polyc 14:1), because it is only through Christ that "we have received knowledge of you" (i.e. the Father). Polycarp's language at the beginning of his prayer draws on a prominent theme in the NT, especially developed in the Gospel of John. In response to Thomas's request to know the way he is about to go, Jesus responds, "I am the way, the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me. If you knew me, you would have known my Father. From now on, you know him and have seen him" (Jn 14:6,7). When Philip follows up by asking to be shown the Father, Jesus responds with a penetrating question, "So great a time I have been with you and you do not know me, Philip? He who has seen me has seen the Father" (Jn 14:8,9). [10] By using the word "child" (pais), Polycarp expresses the fundamental Christian assumption that knowledge of God the Father comes through Jesus Christ.

{L208} 10 Mt 11:25-30 contains another expression of Jesus's unique revelation of the Father.

{L209} Pais is used of Jesus in the speeches in Acts 3:13,26 (by Peter) and in 4:27,30 (in the prayer of the Jerusalem church). It means a small child, even an infant, though at times it is applied to "servants." In this latter sense we see it used in Matthew 12:18 in a quotation from Isaiah 42:1. It is also used in the prayers of the Didache (9:3; 10:2,3) and may well have become a preferred term in early Christian liturgical prayers. In such a context, it may have expressed both sides of its range of meaning. Jesus as "the beloved and blessed child" of the Father has come as his servant to reveal the fullness of the Father. Camelot summarized the significance of pais in the Bible and in the early Christian use of this term:

{L210} Thus, in ritual terms fixed by the tradition of the Old Testament and by liturgical use, pais expresses a theology older perhaps but very firm in its formulations. Jesus is the "servant" of Yahweh, fulfilling in his person the prophecy of Isaiah but this servant is not a slave (doulos) as a creature would be. He is the "child," the well-loved and unique Son. God is the Father of his well-loved and blessed child, Jesus Christ. [11]

{L211} 11 P.Th. Camelot Ignace d'Antioche. Polycarpe de Smyrne. Lettres. Martyre de Polycarpe, 4th ed. Sources chretiennes 10. (Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1969) pp. 205.

{L212} As noted above, this prayer contains many liturgical connections that carry theological overtones. It does not seem likely that Polycarp's prayer was some standard form used in liturgy or by Christians generally. We have no way of knowing just how unique this prayer may be. However, it should not surprise us that a bishop of the church in the second century would weave together liturgical references into his personal prayer at the hour of his death. If he had spent the greater part of his eighty-six years praying a particular liturgy, perhaps with some variations, the content of those prayers would most likely have been ingrained into his mind and heart, just as his Letter to the Philippians contains numerous references to the NT because he had those texts embedded in his memory.

{L213} The framing of the prayer suggests a liturgical origin. In imitation of Jesus, who looked up into heaven in prayer, [12] Polycarp was "looking up into heaven." This posture may have been standard for a presbyter celebrating the liturgy in the second century (the orans position). Then Polycarp refers to the eucharistic "cup of your Christ" and later to "the eternal and heavenly high priest Jesus Christ." He concludes with a phrase that would become usual fare in ending liturgical prayers ("Through him and with him in the Holy Spirit be glory to you now and forevermore. Amen"). The words "the cup of your Christ" point to the inner meaning of martyrdom. The cup of suffering that Polycarp embraces unites him with the Eucharist, the substance of which is the suffering of Christ for the world. It is this union, rather than a sheer act of the human will, that allows him to become "a rich and acceptable sacrifice."

{L214} 12 Of the 25 instances of anablepo ("look up") in the NT, Jesus is the subject in four cases. In three of these cases, anablepo occurs in the story of the blessing of the loaves and fish (Mt 14:19; Mk 6:41; Lk 9:16). In the fourth (Mk 7:34), Jesus looks up before healing the mute and deaf man.

{L215} Another reason for believing that Polycarp's prayer contains liturgical echoes is its parallels with the Didache . Almost all scholars of the Didache agree that it was probably written before 120 and therefore predates Polycarp's martyrdom. The prescribed liturgical prayers (chs. 9, 10, 14) in the Didache belie the notion that worship in the early church was free-flowing and spontaneous. Although it is impossible to say how close the liturgy used in Smyrna was to that used in Syria -- the probable origin of the Didache -- the parallels suggest that there was some uniformity in liturgy across the church. Polycarp's use of pais , discussed above, is found in the Didache as well: "We thank you, our Father, for the holy vine of David your servant (pais ) which you have made known to us through Jesus your servant (pais )." [13] The verb of knowing in this prayer finds a place in Polycarp's prayer as well, "Through him we have received knowledge of you" (Mart Polyc 14:1). It would seem that liturgical prayers of both Syria and Asia Minor stressed the sonship and servanthood of Jesus as the unique channel through which knowledge of the Father was revealed. Polycarp, realizing that he was at the end of his earthly journey, spontaneously drew on ideas found in the liturgy that he had prayed for his entire episcopal ministry.

{L216} 13 Didache 9. This prayer is used twice, once for the cup and once for the bread.

The Letter to the Philippians [14]

{L217} 14 The text of the letter survives in nine Greek manuscripts but all break off in chapter nine, verse 2. Chapters ten through fourteen are preserved only in a Latin translation while chapter 13 (in Greek) is quoted by Eusebius in his Ecclesiastical History of the fourth century.

{L218} The only writing from the pen of Polycarp is his Letter to the Philippians, though some indications are that he wrote other letters that have not survived. This letter has been viewed as simple and uninteresting by some scholars while others have found it significant for understanding the context and content of Polycarp's theology. At first sight, the letter appears to contain somewhat random exhortations on both theological and moral topics. Unlike most of Paul's letters in the New Testament, it does not seem to be addressing any pressing problems in the church at Philippi. In chapter thirteen, we are told in fact that the letter was attached to several letters of Ignatius that the Philippians had requested of Polycarp. Thus, The Letter to the Philippians has the appearance of a cover letter for the collection sent to Philippi. In chapter thirteen, we hear Polycarp informing the Philippians of his intention to fulfill Ignatius's request to forward letters on to Syrian Antioch. [15]

{L219} 15 "You and Ignatius wrote to me that if anyone departs for Syria, he should carry along the letters from you. I myself will do this if I have a suitable opportunity, or [send] someone who is an ambassador for you." Phil Polyc 13:1,

{L220} A closer reading of the letter, however, indicates that Polycarp has several other, more substantial purposes in writing it. One is that he wants to encourage and warn the Philippians about the disorder fomented by the presbyter Valens and his wife who have been lured by the love of money. Several times in the letter Polycarp reminds them that the love of money can be the root or foundation of many evils (see 4:1). The second motif is Polycarp's concern about theological deviation. His repeated emphasis on the death and resurrection of Christ seems to arise out of a lingering Docetism that was evident in Ignatius's letters and earlier in 1 John. The root cause of Docetism is the denial that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh (7:1). Polycarp is convinced that the down-to-earth reality of the Christian life is based on the historical truth of the Incarnation of the Son of God and his accomplishment of redemption through his death and resurrection (Paschal Mystery).

{L221} The last striking feature of this letter, and the one Polycarp mentions the most, deals with the challenge of moral living. Here Polycarp shows his awareness of his pastoral duty not only to his own church at Smyrna but to the larger church as well. Like many bishops before and after him, he was well aware that not all members of the church could adjudicate finely tuned theological points but all could be expected to pursue faith, hope, and love in imitation of Christ. And so he opens his letter with an expression of joy in the Philippians' right living (ch 1). Then follow abundant exhortations that draw on numerous NT texts in which Polycarp expands on the scriptural texts. [16] Of all the moral dangers of which Polycarp warns his readers, he identifies the love of money (philarguria) as the source of all moral problems (see 4:1-3; 5:2; 6:1). He contrasts greed with the greatest virtue of justice or righteousness (dikaiosune). [17] If we use the rest of Polycarp's moral exhortations to give content to this dikaiosune, we can conclude that for the bishop of Smyrna, a just life is one that spans a wide range of other virtues.

{L222} 16 For the latest exploration of Polycarp's use of NT texts, especially Paul, see Kenneth Berding, Polycarp and Paul: An Analysis of their Literary and Theological Relationship in light of Polycarp's Use of Biblical and Extra-Biblical Literature (Leiden: Brill, 2002).

{L223} 17 dikaiosune illustrates different traditions of translation. Protestant scholars, following traditional English versions, tend to use "righteousness" while Catholic scholars, following the Vulgate tradition, have tended to use "justice" (cf. Latin justitia).

{L224} The picture of Polycarp painted by our various sources of information is of a man who was a faithful shepherd of the church in Smyrna. His concern for his flock and for the whole church is reflected in his desire to see the members of the church live according to the gospel. To be faithful to Christ and his gospel meant above all living in holiness and justice (dikaiosune). Such living would be the characteristic of a good citizen (politeuomai) even if the Greco-Roman world did not recognize it as such. More than anything, the Christian must be ready to give his or her life as an offering to God in martyrdom. That, of course, is Polycarp's greatest virtue. His life was crowned with a sacrificial death, the culmination of his existence as Christian and as bishop.

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