Chapter 22
PRAYER
Chapter 22 (1) Those who take this stand ought to give some thought to the basic meaning of this word. What does 'woman' mean right from the first pages of holy Scripture?1 They will discover that it is the term used to designate the sex, not a group within the sex; for God called Eve, although she had not yet known man, both woman and female: female, as an over-all term for the sex; woman, with special reference to a stage of life within the sex. Thus, since Eve, who up to that time was still unmarried, was designated by the term
'woman,' this term came to be commonly applied to a virgin, also. No wonder, then, if the Apostle, actuated by the same
Spirit which has inspired all the sacred Scriptures as well as that Book of Genesis, used this same word, 'woman,' which, because of its application to the unmarried Eve, means also a virgin.
(2) Everything else, then, is in agreement. For, by the very fact that he has not named virgins, just as is the case in another passage, where he is teaching about marriage, he makes it clear that he is speaking about all women and the entire sex and that there is no distinction between a woman and a virgin since he does not mention the latter at all. For, since he did not forget to make a distinction in another passage where the difference demands it (he distinguishes both classes by designating each with its proper term), in a passage where he does not distinguish, since he does not name each, he does not intend any distinction.
(3) But what of the fact that in the Greek, in which the Apostle wrote his epistles, the ordinary usage is to speak of 'women' rather than 'females,' that is, yuvociKOCg rather than
1 Gen. 2.23.
tertullIan GrjXEiaq? Well, if this word is the one commonly used to designate the sex, then the Apostle, in saying yuvaiKa, referred to the [entire] sex [by using] a word which, in translation, means 'females.' But in the [entire] sex the virgin, too, is included.
(4) The form of expression is unmistakable: 'Every woman,' he says, 'praying or prophesying with her head uncovered disgraces her head.'2 What is the meaning of the expression 'every woman' except women of every age, every rank, and every circumstance? In saying 'every,' he excepts no member of the female sex, even as he does not command that men should have their heads covered. For then he would say 'every man.' Therefore, as in the reference to the male sex, under the term 'man' he forbids that even unmarried men should have their heads covered, similarly, in reference to the female sex, under the term 'woman' he commands that even a virgin should have her head covered. Without discrimination, in the case of both sexes, the younger should follow the rule for the elder; or else unmarried men should have their heads covered, too, if unmarried women should not have their heads covered; for the former are not speci fically named in the regulation; let the [married] man be different from the unmarried if the woman is different from the virgin.
(5) Of course, it is on account of the angels, he says, that the woman's head is to be covered,3 because the angels revolted from God on account of the daughters of men. Who, then, would contend that it is only women, that is, married women no longer virgins, that are a source of temptation?
Unless, of course, unmarried women may not present an 2 1 Cor. 11.5.
3 1 Cor. 11.10.
PRAYER
attractive appearance and find their lovers? Rather, let us see whether it was virgins alone whom they desired when
Scripture speaks of the 'daughters of men'; for it could have used the terms 'men's wives' or 'women' indifferently. (6)
But, since it says: 'And they took to themselves wives,'4 5 it does so because they took as their wives those without hus bands. Scripture would have used a different expression for those who had husbands. Now, they could be without hus bands either because they were widows or virgins. So, in naming the sex in general by the term 'daughters,' he em braced species in genus.
(7) Likewise, when he says that nature itself teaches that women should cover their heads3 because it has bestowed hair on woman both as a covering and an adornment, has not this same covering and this same adornment for the head been bestowed upon virgins as well? If it is a disgrace for a woman to have her hair shorn, it is for a virgin then, also.
(8) Since, then, one and the same condition is attributed to each in regard to the head, then one and the same regula tion regarding the head is imposed upon them—even upon those virgins whom their tender age protects. For, right from the start she is included in the term 'woman.' Finally, Israel has the same regulation. But even if it did not, our law, amplified and supplemented, would demand an addition, imposing a veil upon virgins, also. Granted that at the mo ment that period of life which is unaware of its own sex should be excused. (Granted that it should retain the privilege of its innocence; for both Eve and Adam, when realization came to them, immediately covered what they had come to know.) At any rate, in the case of those who have left child4 Gen. 6.2.
5 1 Cor. 11.14,15.
TERTULLIAN
hood, their age ought to confer much both by way of nature and of discipline. For women are revealed by their members and their duties. No one is a virgin from the time she is of marriageable age, since the age now in her has become the bride of its own partner, that is, time.
(9) 'But [suppose that] someone has consecrated herself to God.' Nevertheless, from this time on, she rearranges her hair and changes her whole appearance to that of a woman.
Therefore, let her be earnest about the whole business and present the complete appearance of a virgin; what she con ceals for God's sake let her keep completely out of sight. It is to our interest to entrust to the knowledge of God alone what is done for the sake of God, lest we bargain with men for what we hope to receive from God. Why do you expose before the eyes of God what you cover in the presence of men? Will you be more modest in the public street than in church? If it is a gift from God and 'thou hast received it, why dost thou boast,' says the Apostle, 'as if thou hadst not received it?'6 Why do you condemn other women by this exhibition of yourself? Or are you inviting others to good by your vanity? Yet you are in danger of losing it yourself if you boast of it, and you force others to the same dangers. That is easily destroyed which is assumed with an inclination to vanity. Virgin, cover your head if you are a virgin, for you ought to blush for shame! If you are a virgin, avoid the gaze of many eyes. Let no one look in admiration upon your face.
Let no one realize your deceit. It is praiseworthy for you to create the false impression that you are married by covering your head. Rather, it will not be a false impression you are creating; for you are the bride of Christ. To Him you have surrendered your body; act according to the instructions of 6 1 Cor. 4.7.
PRAYER
your Spouse. If He bids other men's brides to cover their heads, how much more His own!
(10) 'But [suppose that] someone thinks the arrangement of his predecessor should not be changed.' Many apply their own ideas and persistence in the same to the custom estab lished by another. Granted that virgins should not be forced to cover their heads; at any rate, those who are willing to do so should not be prevented.7 If some cannot deny that they are virgins, they should be content, for the sake of preserving their conscience before God, to risk their reputation.8
However, in regard to those who are betrothed, I can declare and avow this with more than my usual firmness: their heads should be covered from the day when they first trembled at the kiss and handclasp of their future husband.
For, in these symbols they have pledged every bit of them selves—their life throughout its full development, their flesh throughout their lifetime, their spirit through their under standing [of the contract], their modesty through the ex change of a kiss, their hope through their expectation, and their mind through their willingness. For us, Rebecca stands as sufficient example; .when her future husband had been pointed out to her, she covered her head with her veil merely because she knew she was to marry him.9
7 This view is considerably less vigorous than the one he holds in De virginibus velandis. His reference to changing the regulations of one's predecessor prompts the suspicion that the present incumbent of the episcopal see of Carthage did not favor the views held by Tertullian on this subject.
8 Textual difficulties render the passage very obscure.
9 Cf. Gen. 24.65.
TERTULLIAN
Chapter 23 (1) With regard to kneeling, too, prayer allows a differ ence in custom because of certain ones—a very few1—who stay off their knees on the Sabbath, an opposing point of view which is just now strongly defending itself in the churches. (2) The Lord will give His grace so that either they will yield, or else maintain their own opinion without giving scandal to others. As for ourselves, according to our tradition, only on the day [which commemorates] our Lord's
Resurrection should we refrain from this custom; and not only from this, but from every sign that bespeaks solicitude and every ceremony arising therefrom. This includes defer ring business, lest we give any opportunity to the Devil. The same holds for the season of Pentecost, which is marked by the same joyous celebration. (3) But who would hesitate every day to prostrate himself before God for at least the first prayer with which we approach the light of day? (4)
Moreover, during the periods of fasting and on the station days no prayer should be said except on the knees and with every other sign of a humble spirit. For we are not merely praying, but beseeching and offering satisfaction to God our
Lord.
Chapter 24 (1) Regarding the time for prayer there has been no regula tion at all, except that we are to pray at all times and every where. But how can we pray everywhere when we are for bidden to pray in public? 'In every place,'1 He said, which 1 Probably of Jewish descent.
1 1 Tim. 2.8.
PRAYER
circumstance or even necessity provides. For it is not con sidered that when the Apostles, within the hearing of their guards, prayed in prison and sang to God they were acting contrary to the precept any more than was Paul when, aboard ship, in the sight of all, he gave thanks to God.2
Chapter 25 (1) With regard to the time, the outward observance of certain hours will not be without profit.1 I refer to those hours of community prayer which mark the main divisions of the day, namely, Terce, Sext, and None. These, it can be found, are mentioned in holy Scripture as being more deserving of note. (2) It was at the third hour—Terce—when the dis ciples were assembled, that the Holy Spirit was infused into them for the first time.2 (3) It was at the sixth hour—Sext on the day when he had the vision of all creatures in the sheet that Peter had climbed to a higher spot in order to pray.3 (4)
Similarly, it was at the ninth hour—None—that he went into the Temple with John where he restored the paralytic to health.4 (5) Although these incidents simply happen without any precept of observing [these hours], it would be good to establish some precedent which would make the admonition to pray a binding force to wrest us violently at times, as by a law, from our business to such an obligation so that we may
2 Acts 27.35.
1 Otiosa. Cf. De baptismo 1.1 for a recurrence of otiosum in this meaning. With this passage, cf. De ieiunio 10; Cyprian, De orat. dom. 34.
2 Acts 2.15.
3 Acts 10.9.
4 Acts 3.1-7.
TERTULLIAN
offer adoration no less than three times a day at least, being debtors to the three divine Persons, Father, Son and Holy
Spirit. And this, too, we read was observed by Daniel ac cording to the rites of Israel.5 Of course, we are excepting the appropriate prayers which are due without any admoni tion at the approach of dawn and evening. (6) It is befitting for the faithful not to take food and not to bathe before saying a prayer. For the refreshment and food of the spirit are to be put before [the needs] of the flesh, because the things of heaven are to be put before those of the earth.6
Chapter 26 (1) When a brother has entered your home, do not let him go away without a prayer. ('You have seen,' He said, 'a brother; you have seen your Lord').1 Particularly should this be observed in the case of a stranger, lest he should happen to be an angel. (2) But, even after one has been welcomed by his brethren, you should not attend to earthly refreshment before the heavenly. For immediately will your faith be re vealed. Or how can you say, according to the precept, 'Peace to this house,'2 unless you exchange the kiss of peace with those who are in the house?
5 Dan. 6.10.
6 Cf. Ad martyras 1.1.
1 Many consider this a corruption of a Biblical citation; cf. Matt. 25.40; Gen. 18.3; 19.2; Heb. 13.2.
2 Luke 10.5.
PRAYER
Chapter 21 (1) Those who are more exact about prayer are in the habit of adding to their prayers an 'Alleluia' and psalms of such a character that those who are present may respond with the final phrases. Assuredly, the practice is excellent in every respect which by its high praise and reverence of God is competent to offer Him, as a rich victim, a prayer that has been filled out in every detail.
Chapter 28 (1) Now, this is the spiritual victim which has set aside the earlier sacrifice. 'To what purpose do you offer me the multitude of your victims,' saith the Lord? 'I am full, I desire not holocausts of rams, and fat of fadings, and blood of calves and goats. For who required these things at your hands?'1
(2) The Gospel teaches what God demands. 'The hour is coming,' He says, 'when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and in truth. For God is spirit,'2 and there fore He requires that His worshipers be of the same nature.
(3) We are the true worshipers and true priests who, offering our prayer in the spirit, offer sacrifice in the spirit—that is, prayer—as a victim that is appropriate and acceptable to God; this is what He has demanded and what He has fore ordained for Himself. (4) This prayer, consecrated to Him
1 Isa. 1.11,12.
2 John 4.23,24.