Index
Acknowledgments
This work has been gestating for many years, and owes much to many. I owe a particular debt to senior academic colleagues who have read this work in draft form, and were generous in their comments: Denis Alexander, R. J. Berry, Francis Collins, Simon Conway Morris, David C. Livingstone, Alvin Plantinga, Michael Ruse, and especially Joanna McGrath. I myself am responsible for any remaining errors of fact or interpretation. Oxford University kindly provided clarification on some important points of detail. The John Templeton Foundation has supported research in science and religion for several years, and I - along with many others working in this field - am indebted to them for their assistance and encouragement. Although this work was originally suggested back in 1978 by an editor at Oxford University Press, I finally decided to entrust it to Blackwell Publishers, with whom I have worked happily for many years. Blackwell has been all that a good publisher should be, and I especially thank Rebecca Harkin for her encouragement and guidance throughout this project.
Notes
Encountering Dawkins: A Personal Account
1 Tom Wolfe, "The Great Relearning." In Hooking Up, 140-5. London: Jonathan Cape, 2000.
2 A Devil's Chaplain, 16.
3 For some examples, see Alister E. McGrath, Christopher G. Morgan, and George K. Radda, "Photobleaching: A Novel Fluorescence Method for Diffusion Studies in Lipid Systems." Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 426 (1976): 173-85; idem, "Positron Lifetimes in Phospholipid Dispersions." Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 466 (1976): 367-72.
4 It took me the best part of twenty-five years to figure out how to do it: for the outcome, see Alister McGrath, A Scientific Theology, 3 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001-3. For a more basic introduction, see Alister McGrath, The Science of God: An Introduction to Scientific Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004.
5 The one I initially had greatest hopes for was Pierre Rousselot, "Petit theorie du developpement du dogme." Recherches de science religieuse 53 (1965): 355-90.
6 I was not the only one to be so excited in this way by Dawkins' new idea: see Stephen Sherman, Genes, Memes and Human History: Darwinian Archaeology and Cultural Evolution. London: Thames & Hudson, 2002, 7.
7 I later wondered if I had made too much of this incident in Darwin's intellectual development: see Frank J. Sulloway, "Darwin and His Finches: The Evolution of a Legend." Journal of the History of Biology 15 (1982): 1-53.
8 Michael Ruse, "Through a Glass, Darkly." American Scientist 91 (2003): 554-6.
9 Cited by Robert Fulford, "Richard Dawkins Talks Up Atheism with Messianic Zeal." National Post November 25, 2003.
10 These argue that Jesus of Nazareth was either mad, bad, or God. As he wasn't the first or the second, he must be the third. The argument works by proposing only three solutions to a hugely complex issue, and dismissing two of them. The chief criticism made of the argument is its simplistic refusal to consider alternatives beyond those on which it depends.
11 Kim Sterelny, Dawkins vs. Gould: Survival of the Fittest. Cambridge: Icon Books, 2001. His ideas are, of course, dealt with in various articles and sections of books: for example, see Michael Poole, "A Critique of Aspects of the Philosophy and Theology of Richard Dawkins." Science and Christian Belief 6 (1994): 41-59; Luke Davidson, "Fragilities of Scientism: Richard Dawkins and the Paranoid Idealization of Science." Science as Culture 9 (2000): 167-99; Holmes Rolston, Genes, Genesis and God: Values and Their Origins in Natural and Human History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999; Keith Ward, God, Chance and Necessity. Oxford: One World, 1996, 10530.
12 See Fulford, "Richard Dawkins Talks Up Atheism with Messianic Zeal."
13 For related questions concerning Darwin's view of God, see Cornelius G. Hunter, Darwin's God : Evolution and the Problem of Evil. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press, 2001.
14 "Alternative Thought for the Day"; BBC Radio 4, August 14, 2003.
15 Richard Dawkins, "A Survival Machine." In The Third Culture, edited by John Brockman, 75-95. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
16 A Devil's Chaplain, 34.
Chapter 1 The Selfish Gene: A Darwinian View of the World
1 A Devil's Chaplain, 196.
2 For a critical yet appreciative account of Tinbergen, see Hans Kruuk, Niko's Nature: The Life of Niko Tinbergen, and His Science of Animal Behaviour. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. For Dawkins' personal evaluation of Tinbergen's significance, see Marian S. Dawkins, Tim Halliday, and Richard Dawkins, The Tinbergen Legacy. London: Chapman & Hall, 1991.
3 Richard Dawkins, "The Ontogeny of a Pecking Preference in Domestic Chicks." Zeitschrift fiir Tierpsychologie 25 (1968): 170-86.
4 The key paper was published in two parts in 1964: William Hamilton, "The Genetic Evolution of Social Behaviour." Journal of Theoretical Biology 7 (1964): 1-16; 17-52.
5 River out of Eden, 19.
6 Oxford University Calendar 2003-4. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, 77.
7 For further details, see James A. Secord, Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
8 On which see James A. Secord, "Nature's Fancy: Charles Darwin and the Breeding of Pigeons." Isis 72 (1981): 163-86.
9 The theory is set out in his The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, 2 vols. London: John Murray, 1868.
10 See Conway Zirkle, The Early History of the Idea of the Inheritance of Acquired Characters and of Pangenesis. Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society, 1946.
11 Gregor Johann Mendel, "Versuche fiber Pflanzen-Hybriden." Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereins in Briinn 4 (1866): 3-47.
12 See, for example, Carl Correns, "G. Mendels Regel fiber das Verhalten der Nachkommenschaft Der Rassenbastarde." Berichte der deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft 18 (1900): 158-68.
13 See, for example, the reports of G. von Niessl, published in Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereins in Briinn 41 (1902): 18-21; 44 (1905): 5-9.
14 B. E. Bishop, "Mendel's Opposition to Evolution and to Darwin." Journal of Heredity 87 (1996): 205-13. It needs to be said, however, that this represents nothing more than an inference on Bishop's part, in that Mendel only refers to Darwin four times in his writings, and these references indicate neither support nor hostility towards Darwin's views.
15 Ronald A. Fisher, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930.
16 F. di Trocchio, "Mendel's Experiments: A Reinterpretation." Journal of the History of Biology 24 (1991): 485-519.
17 The best review in English is Daniel J. Fairbanks and Bryce Rytting, "Mendelian Controversies: A Botanical and Historical Review." American Journal of Botany 88 (2001): 737-52.
18 More specifically, a copy of the second German edition of 1863, based on the third English edition of 1861. Only two passages are double-marked in this way.
19 Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection, 3rd edn. London: John Murray, 1861, 296.
20 Vftezslav Orel, Gregor Mendel: The First Geneticist. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, 193.
21 A Devil's Chaplain, 67-9.
22 The Selfish Gene, 34.
23 Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, "Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types: Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III." Journal of Experimental Medicine 79 (1944): 137-58.
24 Francis H. C. Crick and James D. Watson, "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid." Nature 171 (1953): 737-8.
25 For further details, see such works as Anthony J. F. Griffiths, An Introduction to Genetic Analysis, 7th edn. New York: W. H. Freeman, 2000; idem, Modern Genetic Analysis: Integrating Genes and Genomes, 2nd edn. New York: W. H. Freeman, 2002.
26 Richard D. Alexander, Darwinism and Human Affairs. London: Pitman, 1980, 38.
27 The Selfish Gene, 34.
28 The Selfish Gene, 35.
29 The Selfish Gene, 34.
30 Zhiyan Zhou and Shaolin Zheng, "The Missing Link in Ginkgo Evolution." Nature 423 (2003): 821-2.
31 Jacques Monod, Chance and Necessity: An Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971, 114.
32 Monod, Chance and Necessity, 118.
33 The Blind Watchmaker, 49.
34 A Devil's Chaplain, 81. This does not, by the way, imply that all evolutionary change is adaptive.
35 The Selfish Gene, 21.
36 Richard Dawkins, "Replicators and Vehicles." In Current Problems in Sociobiology, edited by King's College Sociobiology Group, 45-64. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Other evolutionary biologists use different terminology: for example, David Hull prefers to speak of "interactors" and "replicators." See David L. Hull, Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
37 The Extended Phenotype, 239.
38 Seymour Benzer, "The Elementary Units of Heredity." In The Chemical Basis of Heredity, edited by W. D. McElroy and B. Glass, 70-93. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1957.
39 The Selfish Gene, 28.
40 George C. Williams, "A Package of Information." In The Third Culture, edited by John Brockman, 38-50. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995.
41 George C. Williams, Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966, 25.
42 It must be noted at this point that Dawkins' proposal is much more adept at accounting for the modification of the characteristics of existing species than for the generation of new species. See Steven Rose, "The Rise of Neurogenetic Determinism." In Consciousness and Human Identity, edited by John Cornwell, 86-100. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
43 Richard Dawkins, "Replicator Selection and the Extended Phenotype." Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 47 (1978): 61-76.
44 The Extended Phenotype, 199-200.
45 The Blind Watchmaker, 259.
46 For example, see L. N. Benachenhou, P. Forterre, and B. Labedan, "Evolution of Glutamate Dehydrogenase Genes: Evidence for Two Paralogous Protein Families and Unusual Branching Patterns of the Archaebacteria in the Universal Tree of Life." Journal of Molecular Evolution 36 (1993): 335-46; Elizabeth Pennisi, "Is It Time to Uproot the Tree of Life?" Science as Culture 284 (1999): 1305-7.
47 See, for example, K. Henze, C. Schnarrenberger, and W. Martin, "Endosymbiotic Gene Transfer: A Special Case of Horizontal Gene Transfer Germane to Endosymbiosis, the Origins of Organelles and the Origins of Eukaryotes." In Horizontal Gene Transfer, edited by M. Syvanen and C. Kado, 343-52. London: Academic Press, 2001.
48 Mary Midgley, "Gene-Juggling." Philosophy 54 (1979): 439-58.
49 A point made regularly by Dawkins' critics within the evolutionary biology community: see, for example, Steven Rose, "The Rise of Neurogenetic Determinism." In Consciousness and Human Identity, edited by John Cornwell, 86-100. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
50 For Dawkins' response, see Richard Dawkins, "In Defence of Selfish Genes." Philosophy 56 (1981): 556-73.
51 Richard Dawkins, "Selective Pecking in the Domestic Chick." D.Phil. Thesis, Oxford University, 1966, 183-5.
52 The Selfish Gene, 196.
53 For an exploration of this point, see the essay "Darwin Triumphant: Darwinism as Universal Truth," in A Devil's Chaplain, 78-90.
54 For the difference between the two, see Karl-Otto Apel, "The Erklaren-Verstehen Controversy in the Philosophy of the Natural and Human Sciences." In Contemporary Philosophy: A New Survey, edited by G. Floistad, 19-49. The Hague: Nijhof, 1982.
55 For an illuminating example, see Luke Davidson, "Fragilities of Scientism: Richard Dawkins and the Paranoid Idealization of Science." Science as Culture 9 (2000): 167-99. For a more general postmodern response to scientific criticism of cultural accounts of science, see Brian Martin, "Social Construction of an `Attack on Science'." Social Studies of Science 26 (1996): 161-73.
56 River out of Eden, 96-9.
57 Richard Dawkins, "Alternative Thought for the Day," BBC Radio 4, August 14, 2003.
58 Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, 2nd edn. London: John Murray, 1882, 619.
59 For comment, see Maurice Mandelbaum, History, Man, and Reason: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Thought. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971, 77-88; Dov Ospovat, The Development of Darwin's Theory: Natural History, Natural Theology, and Natural Selection, 1838-1859. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, 229-35.
60 A Devil's Chaplain, 20-5.
61 See here Paul L. Farber, The Temptations of Evolutionary Ethics. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994, 136. Farber comments that Huxley's "ethics was a projection of his values onto the history of man," so that his "naturalism assumed the vision he pretended to discover".
62 Richard Weikart, "A Recently Discovered Darwin Letter on Social Darwinism." Isis 86 (1995): 609-11.
63 A Devil's Chaplain, 10-11.
64 The Selfish Gene, 200-1. The first edition (1976) ended at this point; the second edition (1989) added two additional chapters.
65 For Dawkins' comments, see Unweaving the Rainbow, 286-90; A Devil's Chaplain, 74-7.
66 For some reflections, not dissimilar to Dawkins, see Geoffrey Miller, The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature. London: Vintage, 2001.
67 The Selfish Gene, 109-22.
Chapter 2 The Blind Watchmaker: Evolution and the Elimination of God?
1 River out of Eden, 133.
2 An excellent study of this issue may be found in Michael Ruse, Darwin and Design: Does Evolution Have a Purpose? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.
3 The Blind Watchmaker, 43.
4 Climbing Mount Improbable, 64.
5 Climbing Mount Improbable, 126-79.
6 The index, of course, is not exhaustive: see, for example, the brief (and somewhat puzzling) discussion of God found in The Blind Watchmaker, 141. But the omission is interesting.
7 Richard Dawkins, "A Survival Machine." In The Third Culture, edited by John Brockman, 75-95. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
8 Francis S. Collins, "Faith and the Human Genome." Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 55 (2003): 142-53.
9 See his 1883 letter to Charles A. Watts, publisher of the Agnostic Annual. For further comment, see Alan Willard Brown, The Metaphysical Society: Victorian Minds in Crisis, 1869-1880. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947.
10 Stephen Jay Gould, "Impeaching a Self-Appointed Judge." Scientific American 267, 1 (1992): 118-21.
11 A Devil's Chaplain, 149.
12 For the issues, which apply equally well to natural and social sciences, see the classic study of Gilbert Harman, "The Inference to the Best Explanation." Philosophical Review 74 (1965): 8895. A more recent and extended discussion worth noting is Ernan McMullin, The Inference That Makes Science. Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 1992.
13 See James T. Cushing, Quantum Mechanics: Historical Contingency and the Copenhagen Hegemony. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.
14 The Blind Watchmaker, 46-51.
15 The Blind Watchmaker, 47.
16 Friedrich Waismann, The Principles of Linguistic Philosophy. London: Macmillan, 1965, 60.
17 The Blind Watchmaker, 50.
18 Climbing Mount Improbable, 75.
19 For what follows, see Etienne Gilson, The Christian Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994.
20 For background, see Margaret J. Osler, Divine Will and the Mechanical Philosophy: Gassendi and Descartes on Contingency and Necessity in the Created World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
21 The Blind Watchmaker, 4-6.
22 See James R. Jacob and Margaret C. Jacob. "The Anglican Origins of Modern Science: The Metaphysical Foundations of the Whig Constitution." Isis 71 (1980): 251-67.
23 See, for example, Umberto Eco, The Aesthetics of Thomas Aquinas. London: Radius, 1988; Patrick Sherry, Spirit and Beauty: An Introduction to Theological Aesthetics. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992.
24 For some reflections, see John Hedley Brooke, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
25 See the careful study of H. H. Odom, "The Estrangement of Celestial Mechanics and Religion." Journal of the History of Ideas 27 (1966): 533-58.
26 James E. Force, "The Breakdown of the Newtonian Synthesis of Science and Religion: Hume, Newton and the Royal Society." In Essays on the Context, Nature and Influence of Isaac Newton's Theology, edited by R. H. Popkin and J. E. Force, 143-63. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990.
27 John Gascoigne, "From Bentley to the Victorians: The Rise and Fall of British Newtonian Natural Theology." Science in Context 2 (1988): 219-56.
28 William Paley, Works. London: Wm. Orr, 1849, 25.
29 The Blind Watchmaker, 5.
30 For an example, see Dov Ospovat, The Development of Darwin's Theory: Natural History, Natural Theology, and Natural Selection, 1838-1859. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
31 On which see Aileen Fyfe, "The Reception of William Paley's Natural Theology in the University of Cambridge." British Journal for the History of Science 30 (1997): 321-35.
32 See Edward Manier, The Young Darwin and His Cultural Circle: A Study of Influences Which Helped Shape the Language and Logic of the First Drafts of the Theory of Natural Selection. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1978.
33 John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University. London: Longmans, Green, 1907, 450-1. For the background, see Fergal McGrath, The Consecration of Learning: Lectures on Newman's Idea of a University. Dublin: Gill, 1962.
34 Newman, Idea of a University, 454.
35 James R. Moore, The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to Come to Terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America, 1870-1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
36 R. S. S. Baden-Powell, Essays on the Spirit of the Inductive Philosophy. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1855. For an excellent analysis of this thinker, see Pietro Corsi, Science and Religion: Baden Powell and the Anglican Debate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
37 See here Aidan Nichols, From Newman to Congar: The Idea of Doctrinal Development from the Victorians to the Second Vatican Council. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1990.
38 On this, see Tarsicius van Bavel, "The Creator and the Integrity of Creation in the Fathers of the Church." Augustinian Studies 21 (1990): 1-33.
39 See Frances M. Young, "Adam and Anthropos: A Study of the Interaction of Science and the Bible in Two Anthropological Treatises of the Fourth Century." Vigiliae Christianae 37 (1983): 110-40.
40 A much more satisfactory account may be found in John Hedley Brooke, "The Relations between Darwin's Science and His Religion." In Darwinism and Divinity, edited by John Durant, 40-75. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985.
41 Edward Aveling, The Religious Views of Charles Darwin. London: Freethought, 1883.
42 One of the great urban myths concerning Darwin is linked with Aveling: confusion over the true addressee of Darwin's letter of rejection to Aveling led to the widespread belief that Karl Marx himself had requested permission to dedicate Das Kapital to Darwin. Aveling was assembling Marx's correspondence at the time, and the Darwin letter seems to have been mis-filed. See Ralph Colp, Lewis Feuer, and P. Thomas Carroll, "On the Darwin-Marx Correspondence." Annals of Science 33 (1976): 383-94.
43 For the best analysis, see Frank Burch Brown, The Evolution of Darwin's Religious Views. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1986.
44 For a study of the causes of Darwin's illness, characterized by intermittent "excitement, violent shivering and vomiting attacks," see Ralph E. Colp, To be an Invalid: The Illness of Charles Darwin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.
45 This has been beautifully documented by Randal Keynes, Annie's Box: Charles Darwin, His Daughter and Human Evolution. London: Fourth Estate, 2001.
46 Donald Fleming, "Charles Darwin, the Anaesthetic Man." Victorian Studies 4 (1961): 219-36.
47 Letter to Asa Gray (1860): The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, 3 vols. London: John Murray, 1887, vol. 2, 310-12.
48 See U. C. Knoepflmacher, Religious Humanism and the Victorian Novel: George Eliot, Walter Pater, and Samuel Butler. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970.
49 For an excellent overview of this moral revulsion, see Geoffrey Rowell, Hell and the Victorians: A Study of the NineteenthCentury Theological Controversies Concerning Eternal Punishment and the Future Life. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974.
50 See here works such as Howard R. Murphy, "The Ethical Revolt against Christian Orthodoxy in Early Victorian England." American Historical Review 60 (1955): 800-17.
51 See Bernard V. Lightman, The Origins of Agnosticism: Victorian Unbelief and the Limits of Knowledge. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.
52 Text in Thomas H. Huxley, "An Episcopal Trilogy." In Science and Christian Tradition: Essays, 126-59. London: Macmillan, 1894.
53 See, for example, David N. Livingstone, Darwin's Forgotten Defenders: The Encounter between Evangelical Theology and Evolutionary Thought. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987.
54 See the two important recent studies: David N. Livingstone, "B. B. Warfield, the Theory of Evolution and Early Fundamentalism." Evangelical Quarterly 58 (1986): 69-83; David N. Livingstone and Mark A. Noll. "B. B. Warfield (1851-1921): A Biblical Inerrantist as Evolutionist." Isis 91 (2000): 283-304.
55 For details, see George Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism 18701925. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.
56 James Orr, "Science and Christian Faith." In The Fundamentals, vol. 1, 334-47. 4 vols. Los Angeles: Bible Institute of Los Angeles, 1917.
57 See the excellent biography by his daughter, Joan Fisher Box, R. A. Fisher: The Life of a Scientist. New York: Wiley, 1978.
58 R. A. Fisher, "The Renaissance of Darwinism." The Listener 37 (1947): 1009.
59 Gould, "Impeaching a Self-Appointed Judge."
Chapter 3 Proof and Faith: The Place of Evidence in Science and Religion
1 Richard E. Nisbett and Lee D. Ross, Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980, 192.
2 Nisbett and Ross, Human Inference, 169.
3 Keith Ward, God, Chance and Necessity. Oxford: One World, 1996, 99-100.
4 The Selfish Gene, 198.
5 The Selfish Gene, 330 (this passage was added to the second edition).
6 The lecture had no agreed title, and was published under the title "Lions 10, Christians Nil" in Volume 1, Number 8 (December 1994) of an electronic journal entitled "The Nullafidian," which describes itself as "The E-Zine of Atheistic Secular Humanism and Freethought," formerly known as "Lucifer's Echo." There is no pagination. The journal appears to have ceased publication in March 1996.
7 A Devil's Chaplain, 117.
8 A Devil's Chaplain, 248.
9 W. H. Griffith-Thomas, The Principles of Theology. London: Longmans, Green, 1930, xviii. Faith thus includes "the certainty of evidence" and the "certainty of adherence"; it is "not blind, but intelligent" (xviii-xix).
10 See, for example, Dimitry V. Pospielovsky, A History of MarxistLeninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987.
11 Debate between Richard Dawkins and Steve Pinker at Westminster Central Hall, London, on 19 February 1999, chaired by Tim Radford, science correspondent of the Guardian.
12 The Selfish Gene, 330.
13 Dawkins contrasts a series of "caricatures" of Darwinism with the real thing in The Blind Watchmaker, 308-11. It would be instructive to do the same for caricatures of religious belief, in which I fear Dawkins might feature rather prominently, and then compare them with authentic statements from mainline theologians and statements of faith, such as Pope John Paul II's encyclical letter "Faith and Reason" (September 1998).
14 See David Corfield and Jon Williamson, Foundations of Bayesianism. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 2001; Eric D. Green and Peter Tillers, Probability and Inference in the Law of Evidence: The Uses and Limits of Bayesianism. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1988.
15 Elliott R Sober, "Modus Darwin." Biology and Philosophy 14 (1999): 253-78.
16 Richard Swinburne, The Resurrection of God Incarnate. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2003.
17 The Selfish Gene, 198.
18 The Selfish Gene, 1.
19 Climbing Mount Improbable, 68.
20 See, for example, Wesley C. Salmon, Scientific Explanation and the Causal Structure of the World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984.
21 Paul Kitcher, "Explanatory Unification and the Causal Structure of the World." In Scientific Explanation, edited by P. Kitcher and W. Salmon, 410-505. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989.
22 See especially Richard P. Feynman, What Do You Care What Other People Think? London: Unwin Hyman, 1989; Richard P. Feynman, The Meaning of It All. London: Penguin Books, 1999.
23 Timothy Shanahan, "Methodological and Contextual Factors in the Dawkins/Gould Dispute over Evolutionary Progress." Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 31 (2001): 127-51.
24 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Lectures and Conversations on Aesthetics, Psychology and Religious Belief. Oxford: Blackwell, 1966. "If I had to say what is the main mistake made by philosophers ... I would say that it is that when language is looked at, what is looked at is a form of words and not the use made of the form of words."
25 Madeleine Sigman-Grant and Jaime Morita, "Defining and Interpreting Intakes of Sugars." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (2003): 815S-826S.
26 Richard Dawkins, "In Defence of Selfish Genes." Philosophy 56 (1981): 556-73. For Midgley's original article, see Mary Midgley, "Gene-Juggling." Philosophy 54 (1979): 439-58. For her response to Dawkins' criticisms, see Mary Midgley, "Selfish Genes and Social Darwinism." Philosophy 58 (1983): 365-77.
27 I have in mind such works as Richard Swinburne, The Coherence of Theism. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977; Nicholas Wolterstorff, Reason within the Bounds of Religion. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1984; Alvin Plantinga, Warranted Christian Belief. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
28 A Devil's Chaplain, 139.
29 For details, see Robert D. Sider, "Credo Quia Absurdum?" Classical World 73 (1978): 417-19.
30 Tertullian, de paenitentia v, 4.
31 James Moffat, "Tertullian and Aristotle." Journal of Theological Studies 17 (1916): 170-1.
32 See especially Robert D. Sider, Ancient Rhetoric and the Art of Tertullian. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971, 56-9.
33 Tertullian, de paenitentia i, 2. "Quippe res dei ratio quia deus omnium conditor nihil non ratione providit disposuit ordinavit, nihil enim non ratione tractari intellegique voluit."
34 A Devil's Chaplain, 117.
35 See the excellent study of Lawrence Badash, "The Completeness of Nineteenth-Century Science." Isis 63 (1973): 48-58.
36 W. D. Niven (ed.), The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell, 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980, vol. 2, 244.
37 Max Planck, A Scientific Autobiography. New York: Philosophical Library, 1949, 8.
38 Robert A. Millikan, The Autobiography of Robert A. Millikan. New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1950, 23-4. On Millikan, see Robert Hugh Pargon, The Rise of Robert Millikan: Portrait of a Life in American Science. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982.
39 Simon Newcomb, "The Place of Astronomy among the Sciences." The Sidereal Messenger 7 (1888): 69-70.
40 William Bateson, Mendel's Principles of Heredity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1909, 2-3. For Bateson's own work on sweet peas, see William Bateson, E. R. Saunders, and R. C. Punnett, "Further Experiments on Inheritance in Sweet Peas and Stocks: Preliminary Account." In Scientific Papers of William Bateson, edited by R. C. Punnett, 139-41. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1905.
41 Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.
42 For the biological sciences, see the points raised by Sylvia Culp and Philip Kitcher, "Theory Structure and Theory Change in Contemporary Molecular Biology." British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 40 (1989): 459-83.
43 Karl R. Popper. Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography. London: Fontana, 1976. He changed his mind over the next few years: see Karl R. Popper, letter to New Scientist 87: 611, August 21, 1980. For a survey of the issues, see David N. Stamos, "Popper, Falsifiability, and Evolutionary Biology." Biology and Philosophy 11 (1996): 161-91.
44 A Devil's Chaplain, 81. Dawkins suggests that it may be possible to isolate a "core Darwinism" which is relatively resistant to this kind of historical erosion.
45 The work which sparked this off is generally thought to have been Alan G. Gross, The Rhetoric of Science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990; second edition, 1996. For some reflections on the implications of this point, see Gillian Beer, Darwin's Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot, and Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
46 Daniel C. Dennett, Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meaning of Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995, 471.
47 Simon Hattenstone, "Darwin's Child." Guardian, February 10, 2003.
48 Richard Dawkins, "Selective Pecking in the Domestic Chick." D.Phil. Thesis, Oxford University, 1966.
49 See W. R. Miller and C. E. Thoreson, "Spirituality, Religion and Health: An Emerging Research Field." American Psychologist 58 (2003): 24-35.
50 The "religion as pathology" view originates largely from the pseudo-scientific studies of Sigmund Freud: see Frederick Crews (ed.), Unauthorized Freud: Doubters Confront a Legend. New York: Penguin Books, 1998. On the growing recognition of the positive social and personal impact of faith, see Rodney Stark, For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-Hunts, and the End of Slavery. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.
51 For example, see Harold G. Koenig and Harvey J. Cohen, The Link between Religion and Health: Psychoneuroimmunology and the Faith Factor. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001; A. J. Weaver, L. T. Flannelly, J. Garbarino, C. R. Figley, and K. J. Flannelly, "A Systematic Review of Research on Religion and Spirituality in the Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1990-99." Mental Health, Religion and Culture 6 (2003): 215-28.
52 Koenig and Cohen, The Link between Religion and Health, 101.
53 Cited in Kim A. McDonald, "Oxford U. Professor Preaches Darwinian Evolution to Skeptics." Chronicle of Higher Education, November 29, 1996.
54 A Devil's Chaplain, 185.
55 A Devil's Chaplain, 128-45.
56 Acceptance speech on being awarded the 2000 Templeton Prize for Progress in Religion; reprinted in The Tablet (May 20, 2000), 234.
57 Stephane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
58 For the details, see Alister McGrath, The Twilight of Atheism: The Rise and Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World. New York: Doubleday, 2004.
59 Louis Frederick Fieser and Mary Fieser, Advanced Organic Chemistry. London: Chapman & Hall, 1968.
60 A Devil's Chaplain, 243-5.
Chapter 4 Cultural Darwinism? The Curious "Science" of Memetics
1 Joseph Poulshock, "Universal Darwinism and the Potential of Memetics." Quarterly Review of Biology 77 (2002): 174-5.
2 Donald T. Campbell, "Blind Variation and Selective Retention in Creative Thought as in Other Knowledge Processes." Psychological Review 67 (1960): 380-400.
3 Donald T. Campbell, "A General `Selection Theory' as Implemented in Biological Evolution and in Social Belief-Transmissionwith-Modification in Science." Biology and Philosophy 3 (1988): 413-63. The term was first introduced by Campbell in 1974; this article sets out a later exposition of the notion.
4 Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981.
5 See, for example, Susan J. Blackmore, The Meme Machine. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
6 A Devil's Chaplain, 117.
7 William Lloyd Newell, The Secular Magi: Marx, Freud, and Nietzsche on Religion. New York: Pilgrim Press, 1986.
8 A Devil's Chaplain, 117.
9 F. T. Cloak, "Is a Cultural Ethology Possible?" Human Ecology 3 (1975): 161-81. An earlier version of this article appeared in Research Previews 15 (1968): 37-47. For another perspective, see L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, "Cultural Evolution." American Zoologist 26 (1986): 845-55.
10 The Selfish Gene, 192. Similarly, the word "memetic" was coined, paralleling "genetic"; once more, the intention was to stress that both biological and cultural evolution could be accounted for by "units of replication" or "units of transmission."
11 The Selfish Gene, 192.
12 They are all examples of what Cloak terms "m-culture" - in other words, things which arise through the impact of ideas on the environment - where one would expect them to be "i-culture" (again, in Cloak's terms).
13 The Extended Phenotype, 109.
14 For an excellent presentation of this point, see Gary Cziko, Without Miracles: Universal Selection Theory and the Second Darwinian Revolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995.
15 The Selfish Gene, 193.
16 On which see John A. Ball, "Memes as Replicators." Ethology and Sociology 5 (1984): 145-61.
17 A Devil's Chaplain, 145.
18 Simon Conway Morris, Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 324.
19 There is a huge literature. For a useful introduction, see Charles G. Nauert, Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
20 See, for example, Norbert Huse, Wolfgang Wolters, and Edmund Jephcott, The Art of Renaissance Venice: Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting, 1460-1590. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990; James S. Ackerman, Distance Points: Essays in Theory and Renaissance Art and Architecture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991.
21 See, for example, Paul Oskar Kristeller, Renaissance Thought: The Classic, Scholastic, and Humanistic Strains. New York: Harper & Row, 1961.
22 For the general issue, see Ronald G. Witt, In the Footsteps of the Ancients: The Origins of Humanism from Lovato to Bruni. Leiden: Brill, 2000.
23 The Extended Phenotype, 112.
24 A Devil's Chaplain, 124.
25 Juan D. Delius, "The Nature of Culture." In The Tinbergen Legacy, edited by M. S. Dawkins, T. R. Halliday, and R. Dawkin, 75-99. London: Chapman & Hall, 1991.
26 A Devil's Chaplain, 145.
27 Alan Costall, "The `Meme' Meme." Cultural Dynamics 4 (1991): 321-35.
28 Daniel Rothbart, "The Semantics of Metaphor and the Structure of Science." Philosophy of Science 51 (1984): 595-615.
29 Mario Bunge, Method, Model, and Matter. Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1973, 125-6.
30 The Blind Watchmaker, 195.
31 See Robert M. Young, "Darwin's Metaphor and the Philosophy of Science." Science as Culture 16 (1993): 375-403.
32 A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley. "On the Relative Motion of the Earth and Luminiferous Ether." American Journal of Science 34 (1887): 333-45.
33 Mario Bunge, "Analogy in Quantum Theory: From Insight to Nonsense." British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 18 (1967): 265-86.
34 There is a huge literature, including works such as Niklas Luhmann, Love as Passion: The Codification of Intimacy. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998; Vera Schwarcz, Bridge across Broken Time: Chinese and Jewish Cultural Memory. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998; John Lowney, The American Avant-Garde Tradition: William Carlos Williams, Postmodern Poetry, and the Politics of Cultural Memory. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1997.
35 There are some very interesting alternative proposals for the interaction of genes and culture set out in William H. Durham, Coevolution: Genes, Culture, and Human Diversity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991.
36 See, for example, S. Bikhchandani, D. Hirshleifer, and I. Welch, "Learning from the Behavior of Others: Conformity, Fads, and Informational Cascades." Journal of Economic Perspectives 12 (1998): 151-70.
37 S. Bikhchandani, D. Hirshleifer, and I. Welch, "A Theory of Fads, Fashion, Custom, and Cultural Change as Informational Cascades." Journal of Political Economy 100 (1992): 992-1026. Dawkins fails to explore this issue in his account of "crazes," which he analyses very superficially using an epidemiological model: A Devil's Chaplain, 136-7.
38 See, for example, D. J. Watts, "A Simple Model of Information Cascades on Random Networks." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 (2002): 5766-71. The implications of this as an analogue for the transmission of ideas in a cultural system will be obvious.
39 Martin Gardner, "Kilroy Was Here." Los Angeles Times, March 5, 2000.
40 A Devil's Chaplain, 127.
41 Daniel C. Dennett, Evolution and the Meaning of Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995, 361. It is worth noting that the meme hypothesis is still advocated in Unweaving the Rainbow, 304-10.
42 Dennett, Darwin's Dangerous Idea, 361-2.
43 A Devil's Chaplain, 121. For a religious response to this suggestion, see John W. Bowker, Is God a Virus?: Genes, Culture, and Religion. London: SPCK, 1995.
44 A Devil's Chaplain, 135.
45 Harold G. Koenig and Harvey J. Cohen, The Link between Religion and Health: Psychoneuroimmunology and the Faith Factor. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, 101.
46 Kenneth I. Pargament, The Psychology of Religion and Coping: Theory, Research, Practice. New York: Guilford Press, 1997.
47 Aaron Lynch, Thought Contagion: How Belief Spreads Through Society. New York: Basic Books, 1996.
48 Aaron Lynch, "An Introduction to the Evolutionary Epidemiology of Ideas." Biological Physicist 3, no. 2 (2003): 7-14.
49 Stephen Shennan, Genes, Memes and Human History: Darwinian Archaeology and Cultural Evolution. London: Thames & Hudson, 2002, 63. Shennan cites the work of Luca Cavalli-Sforza and Marcus Feldman in support: Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981.
Chapter 5 Science and Religion: Dialogue or Intellectual Appeasement?
1 See, for example, Michael Ruse, Can a Darwinian Be a Christian? The Relationship Between Science and Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
2 A Devil's Chaplain, 151.
3 Two publications have been especially important in forcing this radical review of the popular viewpoint: David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, God and Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986; Edward Grant, The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
4 A Devil's Chaplain, 149.
5 Freeman Dyson, "The Scientist as Rebel." In Nature's Imagination: The Frontiers of Scientific Vision, edited by John Cornwell, 1-11. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
6 Mario Biagioli, Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
7 David N. Livingstone, "Darwinism and Calvinism: The BelfastPrinceton Connection." Isis 83 (1992): 408-28.
8 Colin A. Russell, "The Conflict Metaphor and Its Social Origins." Science and Christian Faith 1 (1989): 3-26.
9 Frank M. Turner, "The Victorian Conflict Between Science and Religion: A Professional Dimension." Isis 69 (1978): 356-76.
10 For a sustained critique of this position, richly illustrated with historical case studies, see John Brooke and Geoffrey Cantor, Reconstructing Nature: The Engagement of Science and Religion. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clarke, 1998.
11 C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959, 3. Snow's analysis is open to challenge at points, especially the way in which he contrasts Goethe and Newton: see Hannelore Schwedes, "Goethe contra Newton." Westermanns pddagogische Beitrlige 27 (1975), 63-73.
12 See Hugh Aldersley-Williams, "The Misappliance of Science." New Statesman, September 13, 1999.
13 See, for example, Paul R. Gross and Norman Levitt, Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
14 See the issues raised by Brian Martin, "Social Construction of an `Attack on Science'." Social Studies of Science 26 (1999): 161-73.
15 Unweaving the Rainbow, xv.
16 Unweaving the Rainbow, 312.
17 Richard Dawkins, "A Survival Machine." In The Third Culture, edited by John Brockman, 75-95. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
18 By far the best study is Edward Grant, Planets, Stars and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200-1687. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
19 Grant, Planets, Stars and Orbs, 169-85, 371-89.
20 An excellent example being the earlier works of John Ruskin; see Michael Wheeler, Ruskin's God. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
21 Unweaving the Rainbow, xiii. See also his extended discussion, ranging from traditional religions to New Age movements, at 114-79.
22 Unweaving the Rainbow, xii.
23 Rudolf Otto, The Idea of the Holy: An Inquiry into the Non-Rational Factor in the Idea of the Divine and Its Relation to the Rational, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978.
24 Richard S. Lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Paul Ekman, "An Argument for Basic Emotions." Cognition and Emotion 6 (1992): 169-200.
25 Dacher Keltner and Jonathan Haidt, "Approaching Awe, a Moral, Spiritual and Aesthetic Emotion." Cognition and Emotion 17 (2003): 297-314.
26 Dacher Keltner and Jonathan Haidt, "Approaching Awe, a Moral, Spiritual and Aesthetic Emotion." Cognition and Emotion 17 (2003): 297-314. The quote can be found at page 304.
27 John Polkinghorne, Science and Creation: The Search for Understanding. London: SPCK, 1988, 20-1.
28 Polkinghorne, Science and Creation, 22.
29 Johann Kepler, Gesammelte Werke, ed. Max Caspar. Munich: C. H. Beck, 1937-83, vol. 6, 233.
30 Bonaventure, Itinerarium Mentis in Deum, 2.
31 On which see R. H. Stephenson, Goethe's Conception of Knowledge and Science. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995.
32 A Devil's Chaplain, 139.
33 A Devil's Chaplain, 19.
34 A Devil's Chaplain, 18-19. He cites in support Lewis Wolpert's excellent study, The Unnatural Nature of Science. London: Faber & Faber, 1992.
35 Bas van Fraassen, "Empiricism in the Philosophy of Science." In Images of Science: Essays on Realism and Empiricism, edited by P. Churchland and C. Hooker, 245-308. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. Quote at 258.
36 Unweaving the Rainbow, 17.
37 Charles Gore, The Incarnation of the Son of God. London: John Murray, 1922, 105-6.
38 Unweaving the Rainbow, 313.
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