Athanasius of Alexandria
1
Athanasius
of Alexandria
A Personal and Literary Biography
Our knowledge of the life of Athanasius is sparse and has many lacunae. On the other hand, his writings shed some light on aspects of the theological controversies of the fourth century and these writings would be better understood within the context of Athanasius’s life. This chapter will weave the personal biography of Athanasius with his writings. In so doing, I hope to show the way his life provides context for the texts as well as how the texts shed light on his activity. Together the texts and contexts help explain the decisions he made and why his life unfolded in the way it did.
Athanasius’s Early Years
Athanasius was born in Egypt around AD 295–98. The end of the third and beginning of the fourth century was a critical and formative time in the history of Christianity. By the beginning of AD 303 severe persecution had erupted following a decree from the Roman Emperor Diocletian to destroy the churches, burn scriptures, imprison Christian leaders, and coerce Christians to offer sacrifice. Those who refused were tortured and others killed. Pope Peter of Alexandria (300–311) was martyred during this persecution. Alexandrian tradition considers Peter the “Seal of the Martyrs” and his martyrdom marks the end of persecution in Egypt. Martyrdom will have an impact on Athanasian theology as the faith of the martyrs demonstrates the power of the resurrection and the overcoming of death. Soon after Peter’s martyrdom, Emperor Constantine (r. 306–37) issued an edict of toleration of Christianity, known as the Edict of Milan (313), and churches began to experience peace.
During the annual celebration commemorating the martyrdom of Peter of Alexandria, headed at the time by Pope Alexander of Alexandria (312–28), Athanasius and some of his friends were playing on the shore. They were reenacting baptism, with Athanasius playing a bishop baptizing some catechumens. Alexander observed Athanasius’s careful reenactment of the ritual and called the young Athanasius to his presence. Alexander saw promise in the young Athanasius and oversaw his education in grammar and rhetoric. A few scholars consider this story legendary, but its circulation shows that Athanasius was viewed at an early time as a person destined to lead the church during a critical period. Gregory Nazianzus mentions that Athanasius received a brief education of literature and philosophy. We do not have much information about the type of education Athanasius received, nor the depth of Greek philosophy and rhetoric he acquired. His writing style indicates he was very well versed in Scripture. Alexander appointed Athanasius a deacon, then his secretary. Athanasius later accompanied him to the Council at Nicaea. The History of the Patriarchs describes Athanasius as Alexander’s “scribe,” “interpreter,” and “minster of the word.” During this period when Athanasius was under the tutelage of Alexander, a presbyter by the name of Arius began to appear on the stage of history.
Arius was a presbyter in the city of Alexandria under the jurisdiction of Alexander. His preaching and his writings caused a lot of upheaval in Alexandria. Arius did not accept the full divinity of the Son, considering him a created being. His famous dicta, there was “once he (the Son) was not” and “he was not before his origination,” summarize his theology. Our knowledge of Arius’s ideas is through the remaining fragments of the Thalia and a letter from Arius to Alexander, in addition to the rebuttal of his ideas throughout Athanasius’s writings. Alexander recognized the threat of such teachings on the understanding of the Trinity and salvation and convened a council in Alexandria (c. 321). The Encyclical Letter of Alexander concerning the Deposition of Arius mentions that all the bishops of Egypt and Libya, who were around a hundred in number, anathematized both Arius and his followers.
Arius presented his case to other bishops in the Eastern Empire. Some bishops began taking sides with Arius and others with Alexander. Emperor Constantine decided to resolve the matter by calling all the bishops, within and outside the Empire, to a council at Nicaea in 325. It was the first time that bishops of all the churches met face to face. The wounds of the bishops who suffered torture during the period of persecution were visible to all who were present, giving more weight to their voice at the council. This council set a precedent for the emperor and the state to interfere in the affairs of the church. The emperor not only presided over the council, he also enforced its decrees. The council agreed on a “creed,” the exile of Arius, and other matters concerning church organization. The Nicene Creed represented the orthodox faith of the church and those who accepted it returned to their episcopal sees; those who refused to sign it were exiled through imperial force. For the first time in the history of Christianity an emperor decided which bishop remained in his episcopal see and, even more, which faith was accepted in the empire. This policy would lead to the five exiles of Athanasius.
Athanasius Pope of Alexandria (328–73)
Alexander died in 328 and Athanasius, who was nominated by Alexander, became his successor. His ordination was contested by many who coveted the position of bishop of Alexandria. Alexandria was a major cultural and economic center in the empire and after the Council of Nicaea its theological leadership was unchallenged. The first theological school in the history of Christianity was in Alexandria. The Council of Nicaea affirmed the geographical extent of the Alexandrian Church as Egypt, Libya, and Pentapolis; in present day terms, Egypt and Libya. There were about ninety bishops under the jurisdiction of Athanasius. Alexandria was a cosmopolitan city, a main port and commercial center on the Mediterranean, and a major cultural center for the whole Roman Empire. It was a philosophical center that hosted most of the philosophical schools of the time. It was a science center where the study of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and the arts was unsurpassed in the empire. Because of the scientific skill of the Alexandrians, it was the yearly obligation of the pope of Alexandria to calculate and communicate to the churches the date to celebrate Easter. The Festal Letters of Athanasius attest to that practice. Egypt was also the breadbasket of the empire. Having the power to control the main sustenance of the empire played a role when Athanasius was later accused of threatening to stop the wheat shipment to Constantinople, a threat that the emperor did not take lightly, which caused a rift between the emperor and the bishop. These powers made many covet the position of pope of Alexandria. The Melitians, a schismatic group, exerted great efforts to wrest control of the Alexandrian episcopate.
Melitius of Lycopolis was of the opinion that those who lapsed during the Diocletian persecution should receive harsh punishment. Peter of Alexandria, on the other hand, argued for leniency. Though it was not a theological disagreement, it eventually led to a division in the Egyptian church. Melitius ordained presbyters beyond his diocesan jurisdiction who aligned with his position, which led Peter of Alexandria to excommunicate him. This division persisted until the Council of Nicaea when the council decreed through the Synodical Letter to the Egyptians that those bishops ordained by Melitius did not have authority to ordain any more presbyters without the consent of Pope Alexander. Those presbyters already ordained by Melitian bishops were to be examined and, if they had been chosen by the people and Alexander confirmed their election, they would keep their position. The Council’s decree gradually resolved the Melitian problem but tension was still present at the time of the election of Athanasius as pope of Alexandria. Though the Melitians were weakened by the decree, they would contest the ordination of Athanasius. A remnant led by John of Acraph forged an alliance with Arian groups, leading to Athanasius’s first exile.
We do not have much information about the early episcopal years of Athanasius. It is suggested that it was during this early period of his episcopal career that he wrote the two-part treatise Against the Gentiles and On the Incarnation. The treatise does not betray Arian concerns and thus some think it was written in 328 or earlier. The general scholarly consensus, however, now promotes the period of 328–333. This two-part treatise presents the overarching theological vision of Athanasius and the theological foundation upon which the rest of his polemical writings should be understood. Athanasius wrote his first Festal Letter in 329.
By the early 330s, the Melitians charged Athanasius with breaking a chalice, overturning a Melitian altar, and murdering a bishop by the name of Arsenius; they also charged that he was ordained to the bishopric below the canonical age of thirty. The latter charge has caused uncertainty among scholars about the date of Athanasius’s birth. Constantine summoned Athanasius to court where he produced the allegedly murdered Arsenius, who had been hiding in Tyre. Constantine dismissed the charges against Athanasius. By 334, Athanasius was accused with further charges. The new leader of the Arian bishops, Eusebius of Nicomedia, united with the Melitians against Athanasius to form one front before Constantine. They persuaded Constantine that Athanasius would withhold the grain shipment from Alexandria to Constantinople. Constantine, alarmed by such a threat, called a synod at Tyre in 335 and exiled Athanasius to Trier in Gaul. The synod restored the Melitians to church communion and accepted the Arian theology.
The imperial policies that began with the Council of Nicaea mark a new phase in the history of Christianity: Councils were called upon imperial demand and decisions were not based on theological orthodoxy. The emperor/state decided which bishops were convenient to the state and which were not and should be exiled. Churches became hostage to the state. In general, this was the case in the eastern part of the empire until its disappearance in the fifteenth century. In the west, the church was the only institution available to take over and fill the political vacuum after the fall of the western empire in AD 476. State interference in the eastern and western churches would diverge dramatically towards the end of the fifth century. The life of Athanasius was a manifestation of the new relationship between church and state.
Athanasius’s First Exile (335–337)
Athanasius was exiled to Trier in 335 and remained there until the death of Constantine in 337. Arius died in 336. After Constantine’s death, the empire was divided among his three sons: Constantinus (337–40), Constans (337–50), and Constantius (337–61). Constantinus, the western emperor, resided in Trier during the time of Athanasius’s exile and got to meet Athanasius. On Athanasius’s return from the first exile he met with Constantius, the emperor of the eastern empire. Our knowledge of Athanasius’s first two exiles (335–37 and 339–46) comes primarily from his Apologia contra Arianos. The first part of the Apologia covers the period 338–47, and the second part, the period 328–37; the last few sections (89–90) cover the persecution and lapse of Liberius of Rome and Hosius of Cordova around 358. The structure of the text suggests that the first half was written around 347–51 and the second half around 338–40. The Apologia is historical in nature and is a collection of documents assembled by Athanasius to prove his innocence against the Eusebian charges. The narrative that Athanasius provides in Apologia contra Arianos is the foundation for the ecclesial understanding of this period in both east and west.
Athanasius returned to Alexandria. He now called his opponents “Eusebians” as they were now led by Eusebius of Nicomedia. The Eusebians filed new accusations against Athanasius, claiming that he appropriated the returns from the wheat sale for his own funds. In 338 Athanasius traveled to Caesarea in Cappadocia to defend himself personally before emperor Constantius. Pope Julius of Rome supported Athanasius against the appointment of a new Arian bishop, by the name of Pistus, in Alexandria. Athanasius called for a council in Egypt (338) that issued a denunciation of the appointment of Bishop Pistus and refuted all charges of financial wrongdoing against Athanasius.
A new council convened in Antioch (339) during the time of the presence of emperor Constantius in Antioch in between his military campaigns in Mesopotamia. The council brought a new charge against Athanasius: that his return to Egypt was illegal as it was not ratified by a new ecclesial decision overturning the exile of the Council of Tyre. The council decided to replace Athanasius and sent the Arian Gregory of Cappadocia to Alexandria in his stead. Athanasius writes in the Encyclical that Philagrius, the Prefect of Egypt, suddenly issued a public letter, in the form of an edict, declaring that the court had ordered Gregory of Cappadocia to replace him. Athanasius describes such a proceeding as “novel” and “heard of for the first time.” He blames the Eusebians for plotting his replacement and causing of his banishment. Philagrius seized the churches and handed them over to Gregory. Crowds plundered the churches, a church and a baptistery were set on fire, monastics of both genders were subjected to physical violence, an altar was desecrated, and scriptures were burned. Athanasius wrote this Encyclical in 339 before his departure to Rome, which began his second exile. In the Encyclical he warns the rest of the bishops that if the court takes such action against him and the Church of Alexandria there is nothing to stop the emperor from taking similar actions against the rest of the bishops. Athanasius warns other bishops that such action was new and threatened the church. He argues bishops should only be exiled for theological reasons based on charges from an ecclesial body not from a heretical group. He adds that any action should be taken based on ecclesial canons and after inquiry in the presence of the laity and clergy who demanded the change. Athanasius argues against the interference of the state in church affairs and warns other bishops of the repercussions of such policy. He pleads with them at the end of the Encyclical that if they let it pass unnoticed and do not take immediate action, this policy will extend to the rest of the churches, not only against Athanasius. This was a threat to the whole church. Athanasius was right.
In his History of the Arians (c. 358), which covers events from 335–57, Athanasius continues the theme of the imperial imposition of bishops on churches. Athanasius describes the cruelty of Gregory, the imperially installed Arian bishop, towards the people in Alexandria and explains his behavior as based on his appointment by the court, accompanied by military power, rather than by apostolic tradition and according to ecclesiastical canons. Athanasius tells us that the Council of Sardica issued a proclamation against Gregory of Cappadocia, who was sent by the emperor, saying that his ordination was not valid, the procedure of his appointment was novel and illegal in nature, and that his behavior did not make him even a Christian. In his description of the attacks on himself and the imposition on Alexandria of Gregory and George by the court, Athanasius points out the hypocrisy of Constantius, who pretended to respect church canons but appointed bishops from court. Athanasius opposed the imperial practice of imposing bishops who were neither voted for by the people nor from the people they would be serving; neither Gregory nor George were Egyptians. Athanasius asks: Where is the canon that gives the emperor the right to send soldiers to invade churches? What tradition allows courts and state appointees to exercise authority in ecclesial matters and, even worse, to falsify orders and make them bear the name of a bishop? Athanasius’s opposition to imperial rule over the church is demonstrated by the following questions: When did the church let the emperor validate its judgment? Or when were the decrees of the emperor recognized in the church? The fathers never sought imperial approval in any of the preceding synods nor did the emperor involve himself in church affairs. Athanasius then attributes changes in imperial policies towards the church to heretics whom Emperor Constantius used to enforce his power over the church and who in turn used the emperor to enforce their power in the church. In the second public protest, the people demand that the emperor order the prefect of Egypt to cease violence against the people and not to send any bishops except Athanasius, who was bishop according to the succession of the fathers of Alexandria. Athanasius was fighting on two fronts: 1) the theological and 2) the political with regard to the relationship between church and state. All the questions Athanasius raised are very valid. It should be noted, however, that when Emperor Constantine called the first council, that of Nicaea, no bishop seemed to object to the interference of the empire. It is only when churches experienced the heavy-handedness of the state and when decisions were not in their favor that Athanasius began to recognize the implications of such a policy. And he fought back.
Athanasius’s Second Exile (339–46)
The Council of Antioch exiles Athanasius to Rome. The second exile lasts about seven years (339–46) during which time Athanasius is in Rome, Milan, Trier, Sardica, Naissius, and Aquileia. Athanasius pens Orations against the Arians during his second exile. Though Arius had died in 336, his ideas did not die and were embraced in various forms by Eusebius of Nicomedia, Asterius the Sophist, and Marcellus of Ancyra, among others. In Orations against the Arians, Athanasius has in mind all the heresies that either stemmed from Arian thought or were lingering from previous controversies. The first three orations are considered genuine while most scholars have agreed that the fourth cannot be attributed to Athanasius. Athanasius begins the Orations with the presentation of the Arian thought as represented in the Thalia. He then defends the divinity of the Son, which is followed by an “orthodox” exegesis of a series of biblical passages that Arius misinterpreted. Proverbs 8:22 receives special attention, its exegesis taking up most of the second oration. The orations represent Athanasius’s mature theological reflections.
In 341, Pope Julius convened a local synod in Rome that pronounced Gregory’s appointment uncanonical. The synod also reinstated Marcellus of Ancyra after he wrote a confession of faith that was acceptable to the Roman synod. Such moves from the west were not well received by the eastern bishops who considered that they overrode the decisions of the Council of Tyre, contravening the practice that the decisions of one council should not override the decisions of another. Pope Julius responded that, through the exile of Athanasius by the Council of Tyre, the bishops of the east had equally overridden the decisions of the Council of Nicaea. Pope Julius also presented another important defense of Athanasius. He argued that, since the church was at peace and all the bishops of Egypt were in unity with Athanasius, it was against apostolic tradition and church canons to send another bishop to replace Athanasius. In addition, the bishop that was sent was a stranger to the Egyptian church, had not been baptized in that church, was not known or voted for by the people or the clergy, and was sent from Antioch accompanied by soldiers and not by bishops of the church of Egypt. Even if Athanasius was guilty, the canons received from the Apostles should be followed and one of the clergy of the church of Egypt replace him, not an outsider. This crucial development in state-church relations would affect the Church of Egypt for centuries to come and will be invoked later.
In the same year of 341, the eastern bishops gathered in Antioch to dedicate the golden-domed church built by Constantius. The eastern bishops took the opportunity to meet in what came to be called the “Council of Dedication” and issued three creeds in addition to a statement of faith by Theophronius of Tyana. It should be observed that during the turmoil of the Arian controversy, between the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople, when regional synods or councils met, they not infrequently issued creeds; more than ten creeds were issued by various councils or synods. Only the Creed of Nicaea is considered orthodox.
In response, in 343 Emperor Constans of the west called for a council in Sardica. When the eastern bishop delegation arrived and found Athanasius attending the council, they demanded Athanasius withdraw from the council; the western bishops refused. When Constantius defeated the Persians, the eastern bishops used it as an excuse to withdraw from the council to celebrate the victory with the emperor. On their way back, once they reached Philippopolis, within the eastern territories under the jurisdiction of Constantius, they excommunicated Athanasius of Alexandria, Marcellus of Ancyra, Julius of Rome, and Hosius of Cordoba. From Athanasius’s Letter 47 we can infer that each group of bishops claimed victory; the western bishops felt triumphant after the Council of Sardica, while the eastern bishops felt triumphant after the meeting in Philippopolis, as the eastern emperor sided with them. The confrontation between east and west had escalated and the bishops of east and west were exchanging excommunications rather than statements of faith and goodwill. There was a major division between Nicene and anti-Nicene churches.
Through the efforts of Constans, Constantius issued a letter to stop the persecution of the supporters of Athanasius in Egypt. The Arian bishop Gregory of Cappadocia died in 345 and Athanasius returned to his see in Alexandria. He entered Alexandria in triumph and was received joyfully by his people and bishops. Athanasius remained in relative peace for the following decade.
A Decade of Peace (346–56)
In this period of relative peace Athanasius had time to reflect on events and most probably also attend to the needs of the Church of Egypt after his long absence. Athanasius composed a few important writings during this period. We already noted that in the period of his first exile he started working on Apologia contra Arianos. He now completes this work. Athanasius starts working on the History of the Arians (Historia Arianorum), but will not be able to complete it until 357, that is during the first year of his third exile. The first four parts of the History cover the events 335–55 in chronological order. It covers the first and second exiles, the events at the synod of Sardica, the return of Athanasius to Alexandria, the death of Constans, and the Council of Milan. Parts five and six cover the lapse of both Liberius and Hosius of Cordoba, demonstrating the pressure exhibited on church leaders to recant the Nicene faith and accept Arianism. Part seven narrates the pressure and persecution that he himself endured leading up to his third exile. He ends the text with the persecutions the Egyptians endured for their Nicene faith and the arrival of George, the imperially appointed bishop to Alexandria after the exile of Athanasius.
Athanasius wrote De decretis (Defense of the Nicene Definition) between 350–56, that is, before his third exile and probably when Constantius was sole emperor. The text is in letter format addressed to a “learned man” who requested to know the events of the Council of Nicaea. By this time Athanasius had been exiled twice, many factions of Arianism had appeared, many regional synods were convened and had issued conflicting statements and put forth several creeds; the level of confusion among the laity and clergy must have been considerable. Athanasius had already written the Orations against the Arians followed by the History of the Arians to set the record straight. A further clarification concerning the Nicene Creed would be necessary at this point. Athanasius, in defense of the Nicene Creed, writes about the divinity of the Son, the titles used for the Son, and the necessity of using the non-scriptural term homoousios to stop the evasions of the Arians. Athanasius refers to earlier Christian writers like Origen of Alexandria and Pope Dionysius of Alexandria, thus affirming the use of tradition to defend his position. In continuation of the discussion in De decretis, Athanasius writes De sententia Dionysii in defense of his predecessor Dionysius of Alexandria who was not an Arian but did not use the term homoousios. The letter was most probably written around 354.
Athanasius wrote two letters towards the end of this period that show his pastoral side. In the Letter to Dracontius, he writes to Bishop Dracontius not to leave his flock. Athanasius explains that, after ordination, a bishop does not live for himself but for his flock and he is not to be a stumbling block to them. He also wrote the Letter to Ammoun in which he attempts to calm anxiety among the monks concerning nocturnal emissions, which were considered defiling.
Relations between Athanasius and Emperor Constantius were strained, though, as previously mentioned. They were eased briefly through the efforts of Emperor Constans. Emperor Constans, however, was murdered in 350 during a coup by Magnentius. Athanasius now lost his major political support. In 353, Constantius defeated Magnentius and became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. In February 356 soldiers attacked the Church of Theonas while Athanasius was presiding over a service. Athanasius fled and hid in the Egyptian desert, thus beginning his third exile (356–62). Another stranger, George of Cappadocia, was installed as the Arian bishop in Alexandria. The people did not welcome him and he was chased out of the city in 358. At the news of the death of Emperor Constantius in 361, he was killed by rioters, both Christians and pagans.
Athanasius wrote two letters of defense: one to Emperor Constantius (Defense before Constantius) regarding the accusations against him, and the second defending the reason for his flight from Alexandria after the Church of Theonas attack (Defense of His Flight). His Defense before Constantius (Apologia ad Constantium) was written in several stages and refers to his previous writing, Apologia Contra Arianos. It affirms that all the accusations against him have proven invalid. Athanasius defends himself against the charges of slandering Emperor Constantius, denying correspondence with Magnentius, and praying in an undedicated church. Athanasius praises the emperor for inviting the injured party, Athanasius, to defend himself. At the end of the letter he defends his flight from Alexandria in 356, a theme that he will continue in his Defense of His Flight (Apologia de fuga sua). In the latter, Athanasius lists the atrocities of the Arians against the Nicene people and clergy of Alexandria. He then defends his flight by Scriptural references starting with Christ himself, who fled to Egypt and then from his persecutors until it was time for his crucifixion. He also gives other scriptural examples of prophets and finally the example of Christian martyrs. Athanasius argues there is a time to flee and a time to stay. The Festal Letters of this period portray Athanasius solving a dispute about the calendar for the Easter celebration and ordaining bishops, whose names and appointment he distributes to the rest of the church. It is interesting to note that in Festal Letter 27, written in 355, after years of suffering for the Nicene faith and a year before his flight, he titles himself “Bishop of Alexandria and Confessor.” He considered the title “confessor,” indicating his suffering for the faith, equal in honor to that of “bishop.”
Athanasius’s Third Exile (356–62)
The third exile was the most prolific period for Athanasius and was accompanied by theological developments in the Arian debate that became more complicated with political interference. The Letter to the Bishops of Egypt and Libya was written after his flight (356) and before the arrival of the Arian George of Cappadocia (357). As a reminder to the bishops, he gives an overview of the Arian heresy and the Thalia. Athanasius warns the bishops in his jurisdiction not to sign a newly circulating Arian creed and exhorts them not to give in under pressure. He argues that if the Arians produce a yearly creed, they are not sure of their beliefs; otherwise, why rewrite their faith at every meeting? To emphasize the heretical nature of their theology he refers to the developing alliance between the two heterodox factions, the Arians and the Melitians, and describes the dishonorable death of Arius in a latrine. During this period he also completed his Defense before Constantius and the Defense of His Flight.
Athanasius wrote the following major works during his third exile: as previously mentioned, History of the Arians (Historia Arianorum), begun during the decade of peace, was completed in 357; On the Councils of Ariminum and Seleucia (De synodis); Letters to Serapion concerning the Holy Spirit (Epistula ad Serapionem); and Life of Antony (Vita Antonii). The latter is one of his most read books. It is also significant that it is a new genre of hagiographical writing and very distinct from the rest of Athanasius’s literary output. The hagiography of Antony is not just the narrative of a life, but rather a theological and spiritual guide to the Christian life. Its spiritual impact and its influence on the understanding of monasticism, especially in Egypt, is significant to the present day.
The letter De synodis was written during the Councils of Ariminum and Seleucia (359), in the year of what came to be called the “dated” creed. Sections 30 and 31 were inserted after the death of Constantius. The theological context within which these councils convened is rather complicated. Aetius and Eunomius promoted the notion that the Son is unlike (anomios) the Father, for the Son is Begotten (gen(n)ētos) while the Father in essence is unoriginate (agen(n)ētos). Consequently, the Holy Spirit is created. This “Anomian” position is in contrast to the “homoian” position that the Son is “like” (homoios) the Father. Basil of Ancyra added further nuances to the theological discussion at the time, promoting the term homoiousios (like according to essence) based on his understanding of the likeness of the Son to the Father as based on likeness of essence. Constantius advocated the opinion of Basil of Ancyra over that of Aetius and Eunomius and exiled them. Constantius called a council with the eastern bishops meeting in Seleucia and the western bishops, in Ariminum. Before the councils convened on May 22, 359, a creed was written (thus called the “Dated” Creed), influenced by the theology of Basil of Ancyra and reflecting a compromise statement. The eastern bishops could not accept the compromise creed. The western bishops did not accept the necessity of a new creed and sent a delegation to that effect to Emperor Constantius who refused to meet with them for a long time. Constantius detained them first in Ariminum and then in Nice without giving them permission to return to their sees. The western bishops eventually relented and signed the document in Nice (the Creed of Nice) in order to return to their sees. At this point of history, both east and west signed the Arian Creed of Nice and thus the whole world became Arian except for Athanasius, who was in exile. Thus the famous lamentation of Jerome: “The whole world groaned, and was astonished to find itself Arian.”
The content of De synodis reflects the turmoil just described. In Part 1 Athanasius gives a detailed account of the double councils in Ariminum and Seleucia. Part 2 gives the history of the ten creeds issued by the Arians: the Dedication Creed, the Lucianic Creed, the Creed of Theophronius, the revision of the Nicene Creed in 342, the first and second Sirmium creeds, the Creed of Acacius in Seleucia, the Dated Creed, the Creed of Nice, and finally the Anomean Creed published under the patronage of Cosntantius in Antioch in 361. Part 3 appeals to the semi-Arians, like Basil of Ancyra, for reconciliation though insisting on the authority of the Nicene Creed. Further notes were added to the document after the death of Constantius in 361. De synodis is a significant document about the history of Arianism and the incessant theological debates that ripped the church apart during the fourth century.
An equally important document is the Letters to Serapion concerning the Holy Spirit (Epistula ad Serapionem) composed of three letters written 358–59. Athanasius defended the divinity of the Son and now defends that of the Holy Spirit, for whom not much credit is given. The Tropikoi denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit. For Athanasius, blasphemy against one person of the Trinity is blasphemy against the whole Trinity. To prove the divinity of the Holy Spirit Athanasius provides the correct exegesis of verses such as Amos 4:13 and 1 Timothy 5:21, which, he argues, the Tropikoi misinterpreted. The Letters to Serapion influenced the writings of Basil of Caesarea and Gregory Nazianzus, whose writings shaped the outcome of the Council of Constantinople in 381, which asserted the divinity of the Holy Spirit and added a passage to the Nicene Creed to affirm that. Gregory Nazianzus gives full credit to Athanasius when he writes: “he [Athanasius] was the first and only one, or with the concurrence of but a few, to venture to confess in writing, with entire clearness and distinctness, the Unity of the Godhead and Essence of the Three Persons, and thus to attain in later days, under the influence of inspiration, to the same faith in regard to the Holy Spirit, as had been bestowed at an earlier time on most of the Fathers in regard to the Son.”
Constantius died in 360 and his cousin Julian succeeded him. In February 362, Julian allowed all bishops to return to their sees, and Athanasius returned to Alexandria.
The Final Years (362–73)
Athanasius’s return to Alexandria was short as Emperor Julian forced Athanasius into exile in October 362. This marks his fourth exile. Julian died during battle with Persia in 363. When Jovian (363–64) took over the reign of the empire, Athanasius made a trip to Edessa to meet the emperor. Letter 56 gives an account of the meeting with Emperor Jovian in which Athanasius emphasizes the Nicene faith and lists the provinces that accepted the faith of Nicaea ranging from as far north as Britain, as far west as Spain, to Asia and Cappadocia and all the provinces in between, including the Mediterranean. Athanasius returned to Alexandria after securing a document guaranteeing his position.
When Emperor Jovian died in 364, Valens took control of the Eastern Empire. Valens (364–78), an anti-Nicene, ordered all bishops who returned from exile during the time of Jovian to leave their sees. Athanasius did not acquiesce to the orders but Valens persisted. By the time the commander attacked the Church of Dionysius to arrest Athanasius, he had already left the church and his fifth and last exile began. Valens faced political unrest that threatened his position and in an attempt to control and calm the political turmoil, at least in Egypt, he gave permission for Athanasius to return to his see of Alexandria.
During this time Athanasius continued his literary output. Athanasius’s focus on Scripture is one of the signatures of his writing method, and his Festal Letter 39 (367) betrays such interest by listing the biblical books accepted in the church; the list of New Testament books corresponds to our present New Testament canon. In the Letter to Adelphius (c. 370), Athanasius defends the inseparability of the humanity and divinity of Christ; otherwise, we would be worshiping a creature and not the Son of God. The Letter to Epictetus of Corinth (c. 372) explains the impact of the full humanity of the person of Christ in the scheme of our salvation. These two letters are most influential as they will guide the theological debates of the fifth century. The writings of Athanasius are foundational for defining the theology of the Church of Alexandria throughout its history.
Athanasius dies in peace in 373. His authority and the orthodoxy of his theology is acclaimed at the end of his life and throughout history. Already during the time of Emperor Jovian, his renown, orthodoxy, and authority as a theologian is acknowledged by many. He is called the Champion of Orthodoxy, the Defender of Orthodoxy, and the Pillar of Faith. The Coptic Orthodox Church gives him the title “The Apostolic.”
Questions for Further Discussion
Suggestions for Further Reading
Defense against the Arians (Apologia contra Arianos)
History of the Arians (Historia Arianorum)
Defense of the Nicene Definition (De decretis)
On the Councils of Arminum and Seleucia (De synodis)
Letters 46, 47, 56
Festal Letters
. The map in Appendix 1 shows cities Athanasius visited, cities whose bishops he corresponded with, cities to which he was exiled, locations of major synods and councils, and places relevant to imperial activity. The map demonstrates the scope of the interconnectivity and networks of early church leaders and the impact of Athanasius and his writings across the huge expanses of the Roman Empire as well as on the history of Christianity during the fourth century and later.
. Gwynn offers a summary of the scholarly arguments surrounding the chronology of Athanasius’s life and writings. I will primarily follow the dateline of Gwynn, Eusebians, 13–48; and Gwynn, Athanasius, 1–17; while consulting Anatolios, Athanasius, 1–39; and Donker, Apostolos, 7–27.
. Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 8:2, 3, 7, 8.
. See Vivian, Saint Peter of Alexandria.
. See chapter 2.
. Rufinus, Hist. 1.14; Socrates, Hist. eccl. 1.15, who mentions the story based on Rufinus’ account; Sozomen, Hist. eccl. 2.17. Another legend describes Athanasius as a son of a rich non-Christian widow. She makes every attempt to marry him off, but he refuses. She discovers his devotion to Christianity and realizes that if she opposes him she will lose him. She eventually goes to Alexander and he baptizes her and her son Athanasius. History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Patrologia Orientalis 1:407–8. It should be noted that there is no evidence that he was a convert.
. Gregory Nazianzus, Orations 21.
. Socrates, Hist. eccl. 1.15.
. History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Patrologia Orientalis 1:408.
. C. Ar. 1:5–6; Syn. 15. Athanasius informs us that Arius wrote a Thalia to express his ideas and to encourage the Eusebians. Williams, Arius, 62–66, 98–116. Stead, “Thalia of Arius,” 20–52.
. Syn. 16. See chapter 4 for Arius’s ideas. There are other writings from the followers of Arius’s or the Eusebians that express the development of this theology but this is beyond the scope of this study.
. Hen. Som. 3. The end of the letter expresses grief “for their destruction” but declares the necessity of such action based on Luke 21:8 and 1 Tim 4:1. Hen. Som. 5.
. Canon 6 of the Council of Nicaea, and the Letter of the Synod of Nicaea to the Egyptians.
. Ep. Afr. 10.
. For the history of the debate, refer to Ernest, Bible, 423–24; and Leemans, “Athanasius Research,” 132–35.
. Because of the importance of this two-part treatise, chapter 2 is devoted to its theology.
. Festal Letter, 4.5.
. Apol. Sec. 87. This treatise was misnamed “Apologia Secunda” due to its placement after the Apologia Fuga. Gwynn, Eusebians, 16.
. Athanasius wrote a Letter to Serapion on the Death of Arius around 339–346. The letter’s main concern is that Arius did not die in communion with the church. It also mentions the famous story of Arius dying in Constantinople while fulfilling the “necessities of nature.” The account of the death of Arius in a latrine is also mentioned in Letters to the Bishops of Egypt and Libya (Epistula ad episcopos Aegypti et Libyae).
. Gwynn, Eusebians, 16–19.
. Apol. Sec. 3–20.
. Ep. encycl. 2.
. Ep. encycl. 3.
. Ep. encycl. 2.
. Ep. encycl. 6.
. H. Ar. 13–14.
. H. Ar. 17. Gregory Nazianzus would concur with Athanasius regarding the process by which bishops were chosen. Gregory wrote that people voted for bishops following the right of succession to the throne of Saint Mark, demonstrating how bishops were chosen in Alexandria. Gregory Nazianzus, Orations 21.8.
. H. Ar. 51.
. H. Ar. 52.
. H. Ar. 52.
. H. Ar. 81.
. See chapter 4.
. For an overview of the dating of Orations see Leemans, “Athanasius Research,” 138–44. For the authenticity of Against the Arians 3 see Ernest, Bible, 429–30.
. Apol. Sec. 30.
. Syn. 22–24.
. Athanasius sent two letters from Sardica to the Mareotis (Letter 46) and to the people of Alexandria (Letter 47). They give some account of the events in Sardica, especially the excommunication of Gregory, encourage and commend the people for keeping the Nicaean faith, and warn them against heretical teachings.
. Ep. Aeg. Lib. 1.6.
. See chapters 2 and 7; see also Farag, Balance, 62–94.
. Anatolios, Athanasius, 27–28. This was further complicated with the Nicene group suspecting the use of agenētos, meaning unoriginate, to be of pagan origin in contrast to agennētos meaning ungenerate/unbegotten. See G. W. H. Lampe, ed. A Patristic Greek Lexicon, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961) s.v. agenētos and agennētos.
. Jerome, Lucif., 19.
. Gregory Nazianzus, Orations 21.33.